The role of abrasion and corrosion in grinding media wear

A range of ferrous grinding media compositions was subjected to laboratory marked ball wear tests in an ongoing research program at the Mineral Resources Research Center which was aimed at elucidating the responsible wear mechanisms during the grinding of minerals. Most of the wear data in this paper were obtained using a model quartz-pyrrhotite mineral slurry but these have been supplemented, where appropriate, with a small amount of data from wear tests on taconite ore and a Cu-Ni gabbroic ore. The role of abrasive and/or corrosive wear was determined by comparing the wear rates which result under a range of grinding atmospheres, i.e. O₂, N₂ or compressed air, flushing through a laboratory mill of 8 in diameter coupled with examination of ball surfaces after grinding using scanning electron microscopy.     

Laboratory studies on the wear of grinding media

Quartzite ore was ground in a laboratory mill at different mill speeds and under dry and wet conditions using hyper steel and high chromium cast iron balls. A study of ball dynamics in the mill and scanning electron microscopy of the used ball surface threw light on ball wear characteristics and the efficiency of the grinding processes.     

The particle size effect on abrasive wear of high-chromium white cast iron mill balls

Granite grinding tests, under dry and wet conditions, were performed to assess the influence of abrasive particle size to the wear behavior of martensitic high-chromium white cast iron mill balls. The tests were performed, at first, using raw granite particle sizes between 0.074 and 19.1 mm, and then with coarse and fine granite fractions obtained after screening the raw granite in a 3.36 mm sieve. It is demonstrated that the relative particle/ball size relationship is the determining parameter to ball wear. The highest ball wear rates were observed for fine granite grinding under dry (120 mg/cycle) and wet (129 mg/cycle) conditions. The lowest wear rate (ca. 50 mg/cycle) was observed for coarse granite grinding (dry and wet). These different results were attributed to the different size relationships between grinding body diameter and granite particles size. For wet-grinding of raw granite, the mineral components may influence significantly the wear behavior. Feldspar can act as a bonding agent, gluing fine quartz particles to the coarse granite and to the balls surface and turning the dependence of the relationship between the relative sizes of ball and granite particle less important to the wear process. This explains why wet-grinding of raw granite results in a ball wear two times greater (106 mg/cycle) than dry-grinding (51 mg/cycle).     

Ball-cratering abrasion tests with large abrasive particles

The application of a ball-cratering method to test three-body abrasive wear of bulk materials in the presence of large abrasive particles has been investigated. Four types of abrasive particles of different sharpness were used to make slurries: glass beads, silica sand, crushed quartz and alumina. All the particles were sieved to a size of 250–300 μm. Two common industrial materials, mild steel and 27% Cr white cast iron, were used as wear samples. Wear rates of metallic samples were determined and the worn surfaces were examined by optical microscopy, SEM and Talysurf profilometry.It was found that the surface roughness of the ball significantly affects the wear rates and the wear mechanisms of the metallic samples. The surface roughness of the ball steadily increased with testing time and was mainly affected by the angularity of abrasive particles. More angular particles generated higher ball surface roughness. It was found that the gradual increase in the ball surface roughness was responsible for non-linearity of wear rates with sliding time. The increasing depth of the wear craters also contributed to this non-linearity as deeper craters facilitate particle entrainment. Three-body rolling wear dominated when the ball was smooth and the contribution of two-body grooving wear increased with increasing the ball roughness. Softer mild steel samples were more affected by the ball roughness changes than the harder white cast iron samples. Wear surface morphology was also affected by the angularity of particles and by the material properties of wear samples. Particle fracture was found in all four groups of abrasives and the angularity of the particles was slightly altered. Therefore, the ball-cratering test, under the testing conditions used, can be considered as a high-stress abrasion test.     

Abrasive wear of a single CBN grain in ultrasonic-assisted high-speed grinding

Research into the single grain cutting mechanism is important for understanding complex grinding mechanisms. Based on the characteristics of ultrasonic vibration, the motion equation of the grain is established, and the generated trajectory is theoretically analyzed. By adopting the method of combining high-speed grinding technology with ultrasonic vibration, abrasive wear forms of single cubic boron nitride (CBN) grains under common and ultrasonic conditions are studied. Further studies are conducted on the influence of the grain itself and the main grinding parameters on abrasive wear. Research shows that the main forms of abrasive wear during ultrasonic-assisted grinding are shearing wear and removing wear. However, common grinding leads to micro-crushing wear and a small amount of abrasion wear; the different forms of wear correspond to different grinding force signals. The greater the initial grain protrusion height, the greater is the abrasion of the protrusion; for the same grain protrusion height, the abrasive wear due to ultrasonic-assisted grinding is larger than that due to common grinding. As the grinding depth increases, the abrasive wear of both processing modes increases; however, in the case of ultrasonic machining, the abrasive wear increases slowly and is larger than that under common grinding. This study provides a certain decision basis for real-time monitoring of the ultrasonic-assisted high-speed grinding process. Additionally, it provides guidance and reference for the manufacture and selection of the grinding wheel and for the selection of reasonable processing parameters.     

中性腐蚀环境下钢丝的微动疲劳行为

在自制的微动疲劳试验机上开展中性腐蚀环境下单根钢丝的微动疲劳实验,考察在相同接触载荷下,不同振幅对钢丝的微动疲劳行为的影响,并用扫描电子显微镜观察疲劳钢丝的磨痕和断口形貌,研究钢丝微动疲劳断裂机制.结果表明:在较大的振幅下,钢丝的微动区均处于滑移状态,而在较小振幅下,钢丝的微动区从滑移状态逐渐转变为黏着状态;磨损机制主要为磨粒磨损、疲劳磨损、腐蚀磨损和塑性变形;钢丝疲劳寿命随着微动振幅的增大而减小;钢丝的疲劳断口可分为3个区域,即疲劳源区、裂纹扩展区及瞬间断裂区.     

Abrasive-tool wear and the machinability of high-speed tungsten-free steels

The physics of grinding is considered in order to explain the difference in machinability of tungstenfree and tungsten steels. The strength of the most common steels and alloys is studied over a broad range of strain rate and temperature. Analysis of the results established the variation in strength of high-speed tungsten-free and tungsten steels in typical grinding conditions and permits explanation of the difference in machinability of the steels in physical terms. The relation between the machinability of steel and wear of the abrasive tool is investigated in experiments with individual grains (plane angle ? = 90°) of different abrasive materials: electrocorundum (24A), zirconium corundum (38A), and Elbor (Borazon). That permits the derivation of a regression equation reflecting the qualitative characteristics of the process, such as the starting point, the presence of an extremum, and the asymptotic behavior.     

不同润滑条件下氧化铝陶瓷衬板的磨损机制

在干摩擦、水润滑、油润滑3种不同润滑条件下对氧化铝陶瓷进行摩擦磨损试验。利用SEM对磨损后的磨痕进行观察并进行显微组织结构分析,探讨不同介质下氧化铝陶瓷的磨损机制。结果表明:氧化铝陶瓷材料干摩擦条件下的磨损机制为大量的脆性剥落和大量的磨粒磨损,在水润滑条件下为较少的脆性剥落和轻微的磨粒磨损,在油润滑条件下为很少的脆性剥落和极微的磨粒磨损;液体润滑剂可使氧化铝陶瓷材料的磨损量大幅度降低,其中油润滑条件的减磨效果最为突出。     

Microstructure and Tribological Properties of a HfB<Subscript>2</Subscript>-Containing Ni-Based Composite Coating Produced on a Pure Ti Substrate by Laser Cladding

A HfB₂-containing Ni-based composite coating was fabricated on Ti substrates by laser cladding, and its microstructure and tribological properties were evaluated during sliding against an AISI-52100 steel ball at different normal loads and sliding speeds. The morphologies of the worn surfaces were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and three-dimensional non-contact surface mapping. The results show that wear resistance of the pure Ti substrate and NiCrBSi coating greatly increased after laser cladding of the HfB₂-containing composite coating due to the formation of hard phases in the composite coating. The pure Ti substrate sliding against the AISI-52100 counterpart ball at room temperature displayed predominantly adhesive wear, abrasive wear, and severe plastic deformation, while the HfB₂-containing composite coating showed only mild abrasive wear and adhesive wear under the same conditions.     

Wear mechanisms in ball-cratering tests with large abrasive particles

Three-body abrasive wear resistance of mild steel and 27%Cr white cast iron was investigated using a ball-cratering test. Glass beads, silica sand, quartz and alumina abrasive particles with sizes larger than 200 μm were used to make slurries. It was found that the wear rates of mild steel increased with sliding time for all abrasive particles tested, while the wear rates of 27%Cr white cast iron were almost constant with sliding time. This increase in the wear rates of mild steel was mainly due to the gradual increase in ball surface roughness with testing time. Abrasive particles with higher angularity caused higher ball surface roughness. Soft mild steel was more affected by this ball surface roughness changes than the hard white cast iron. Generally, three-body rolling wear dominated. The contribution of two-body grooving wear increased when the ball roughness was significant. The morphological features of the wear scars depended on the shape of the abrasive particles and also on the hardness and microstructure of the wear material. Angular particles generated rough surfaces similar to those usually observed in high angle erosion tests. Rounded particles generated smoother surfaces with the middle area of the wear craters having similar morphology to those observed in low angle erosion.     

Friction and wear behaviour of AISI 5140 steel under rectangular wave loading conditions

Abstract

The tribological characteristics and wear mechanisms of AISI 5140 steel at ambient temperature were investigated using a home built ball on disc tribometer under constant normal loading and rectangular wave loading respectively. The worn surface and wear debris collected from the disc were studied using scanning electron microscope. Results show that the friction coefficients under the constant normal force correspond to the traditional theory. The coefficients all exhibited increased normal loads, whereas under the rectangular wave condition, the highest coefficient appeared when the peak value of the periodically alternative load was 90?N. The different underlying wear mechanism under different loading conditions was explored. It was found that abrasive wear was the main mechanism in the constant loading, whereas severe plastic deformation and adhesive wear were the main wear mechanism in the rectangular wave loading cases. This phenomenon can be attributed to the role of debris in the ‘lubrication’ process under the rectangular wave loading conditions.     

Wear behavior of SiC particulate reinforced aluminum composites sliding against steel balls under dry and lubricated conditions

Wear behavior of Al–Si alloys reinforced with SiC particulate has been investigated under dry and lubricated reciprocating sliding conditions using a ball-on-block wear test method. It was shown that in the dry sliding wear of the composite/steel ball system, the wear mechanism of the composite was predominantly adhesive. With further sliding motion, delamination and abrasive wear occurred as a result of fracture and debonding of the SiC particles. Under lubricated conditions, the wear rate of the composite was drastically reduced due to the presence of the lubricant, and a boundary lubrication condition existed and dominated the normal wear process. The debonding of the SiC particles from the matrix of the composite was a predominant factor in determining the wear loss of the composite in the boundary lubrication sliding process. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Structure and wear resistance of electron-beam nitrous coatings

The paper deals with the study of the tribological properties of nitrogen-containing austenite coatings deposited by electron-beam facing during abrasive wear and the sliding friction of a VK6 hard alloy indentor. The abrasive wear resistance of the nitrous coatings deposited by the electron-beam facing of steel 60Kh24AG16 powder in quartz sand is lower than that of the steel 65G coatings after hardening; it increases with increasing mass share of the filler. At contents of nitrided ferrovanadium of 10?C30 wt % the abrasive wear rate increases by 30?C50%, respectively. It is found that under a certain load applied to the VK6 ball indentor the friction coefficient and the shear resistance of the surface layer diminish. It is shown that under heavy specific loads applied to the ball indentor the nitrous coating faced from steel 60Kh24AG16 powder and composite nitrous coatings have wear resistance exceeding that of steels 110G13 and Kh18N10 by more than two and seven times, respectively. Based on the results of structural studies an explanation of the observed behavior of the nitrous coatings is proposed.     

Tribological mechanism of carbon group nanofluids on grinding interface under minimum quantity lubrication based on molecular dynamic simulation

Carbon group nanofluids can further improve the friction-reducing and anti-wear properties of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL). However, the formation mechanism of lubrication films generated by carbon group nanofluids on MQL grinding interfaces is not fully revealed due to lack of sufficient evidence. Here, molecular dynamic simulations for the abrasive grain/workpiece interface were conducted under nanofluid MQL, MQL, and dry grinding conditions. Three kinds of carbon group nanoparticles, i.e., nanodiamond (ND), carbon nanotube (CNT), and graphene nanosheet (GN), were taken as representative specimens. The [BMIM]BF₄ ionic liquid was used as base fluid. The materials used as workpiece and abrasive grain were the single-crystal Ni–Fe–Cr series of Ni-based alloy and single-crystal cubic boron nitride (CBN), respectively. Tangential grinding force was used to evaluate the lubrication performance under the grinding conditions. The abrasive grain/workpiece contact states under the different grinding conditions were compared to reveal the formation mechanism of the lubrication film. Investigations showed the formation of a boundary lubrication film on the abrasive grain/workpiece interface under the MQL condition, with the ionic liquid molecules absorbing in the groove-like fractures on the grain wear’s flat face. The boundary lubrication film underwent a friction-reducing effect by reducing the abrasive grain/workpiece contact area. Under the nanofluid MQL condition, the carbon group nanoparticles further enhanced the tribological performance of the MQL technique that had benefited from their corresponding tribological behaviors on the abrasive grain/workpiece interface. The behaviors involved the rolling effect of ND, the rolling and sliding effects of CNT, and the interlayer shear effect of GN. Compared with the findings under the MQL condition, the tangential grinding forces could be further reduced by 8.5%, 12.0%, and 14.1% under the diamond, CNT, and graphene nanofluid MQL conditions, respectively.     

TD法VC涂层与陶瓷和钢对摩时摩擦磨损性能对比研究

采用TD法在Cr12MoV冷作模具钢表面制备VC涂层,在摩擦磨损试验机上考察VC涂层与钢球、钢柱和陶瓷球配副时的摩擦磨损性能,利用扫描电镜、粗糙度测量仪和X射线衍射仪(XRD)分析涂层磨损前后表面及界面的形貌、表面粗糙度和物相组成.结果表明,与不同摩擦副配副时,VC涂层摩擦因数随着磨损时间增加先增大后趋于平稳,磨损率随着磨损时间增加而减小,其中与钢柱配副时摩擦因数最小,磨损率最低.与不同摩擦副配副时,VC涂层磨损机制与失效形式不同,与钢球配副时VC涂层磨损机制为磨粒磨损,失效形式为划痕和剥落坑;与钢柱配副时VC涂层磨损机制为黏着磨损和疲劳磨损,失效形式为犁沟和片层状剥落;与陶瓷球配副时VC涂层磨损机制为氧化磨损,失效形式为脆性断裂.     

载流下MoS2/Ag纳米复合薄膜摩擦学性能

MoS₂基纳米复合薄膜具有良好的摩擦学性能,但较差的导电性能限制了其在载流条件下作为润滑材料的应用。为提高MoS₂基纳米复合薄膜的导电性能,采用非平衡磁控溅射系统沉积2种不同Ag含量的MoS₂/Ag纳米复合薄膜,并在不同的电流条件下研究MoS₂/Ag纳米复合薄膜与GCr15钢球对摩时的摩擦学性能。结果表明：在载流下2种MoS₂/Ag纳米复合薄膜表现出相似的摩擦性能,而低掺杂MoS₂/Ag薄膜具有更佳的耐磨性能,这归因于低掺杂MoS₂/Ag薄膜具有较好的力学性能;无载流时,MoS₂/Ag纳米复合薄膜在摩擦过程中生成的氧化物颗粒增加了磨损、降低了润滑性,磨损机制主要为磨粒磨损;电流小于0.5 A时,电流促进了转移膜形成,使得摩擦因数降低,但磨损率增加,磨损机制主要为黏着磨损;当电流大于0.5 A时,由于电弧烧蚀加速了薄膜的磨损,磨损机制主要为磨粒磨损、黏着磨损和电弧腐蚀磨损。     

Fretting wear behaviors of steel wires under friction-increasing grease conditions

Fretting wear tests were performed on the self-made fretting wear rig to investigate fretting wear behaviors of steel wires under friction-increasing grease conditions. The results demonstrated that the fretting regimes were dependent on displacement amplitudes and normal loads. The friction coefficient exhibited different variation trends in different fretting regimes. Friction-increasing grease changed the fretting running behavior and had a very good wear resistance for steel wires. Wear was slight in partial slip regime. Mixed regime was characterized by plastic deformation, fatigue cracks and abrasive wear. Slip regime presented main damage mechanisms of abrasive wear, fatigue wear and oxidation.     

磨料粒度对电镀CBN砂轮磨损影响的有限元仿真分析

以单颗CBN磨粒的磨损为例,对电镀CBN砂轮的磨损进行研究。针对磨削淬硬轴承钢GCr15,将单颗CBN磨粒适当简化成圆锥体,建立楔形滑擦模型,利用Deform 3D软件对单颗CBN磨粒的磨耗磨损进行仿真分析。仿真结果表明:不同粒度磨粒的磨损形式相似,均为前端面磨成弧形月牙洼形,尖端逐渐磨成平台;相同条件下磨粒的最大磨损量随着磨料粒度号的增大而减小。同时也说明了细粒度的电镀CBN砂轮的磨损较小。研究结果对进一步研究电镀CBN砂轮制造工艺有指导意义。     

Cu-3镍铜合金砂带磨削试验研究

分析了Cu-3镍铜合金砂带磨削加工过程中,砂带粒度和磨削用量的不同对磨削加工效率、工件表面质量和砂带磨损的影响。采用氧化铝磨料砂带在不同的砂带线速度或磨削压力下对镍铜合金进行了工艺试验,对材料去除量、工件表面粗糙度和砂带磨损量进行了测量。研究表明:增加砂带线速度和磨削压力可在一定程度上提高材料去除率和磨削比;随着磨削压力的增大,工件表面粗糙度呈增大趋势;随着砂带粒度的增大,工件表面粗糙度呈减小趋势;砂带线速度为25m/s,磨削压力为43N,砂带粒度为P240时,镍铜合金综合磨削效果最好。