White-Etching Matter in Bearing Steel. Part II: Distinguishing Cause and Effect in Bearing Steel Failure

The premature failure of large bearings of the type used in wind turbines, possibly through a mechanism called “white-structure flaking”, has triggered many studies of microstructural damage associated with “white-etching areas” created during rolling contact fatigue, although whether they are symptoms or causes of failure is less clear. Therefore, some special experiments have been conducted to prove that white-etching areas are the consequence, and not the cause, of damage. By artificially introducing a fine dispersion of microcracks in the steel through heat treatment and then subjecting the sample to rolling contact fatigue, manifestations of hard white-etching matter have been created to a much greater extent than samples similarly tested without initial cracks. A wide variety of characterization tools has been used to corroborate that the white areas thus created have the same properties as reported observations on real bearings. Evidence suggests that the formation mechanism of the white-etching regions involves the rubbing and beating of the free surfaces of cracks, debonded inclusions, and voids under repeated rolling contact. It follows that the focus in avoiding early failure should be in enhancing the toughness of the bearing steel in order to avoid the initial microscopic feature event.     

On the Formation of Macrosegregation and Interdendritic Cracks During Dendritic Solidification of Continuous Casting of Steel

The aim of the current article is to elucidate the significant effects of macrosegregation distribution and its level on the different stages of interdendritic crack formation during dendritic solidification in continuously cast steel slabs. Couple formations of macrosegregation and interdendritic crack phenomena during dendritic solidification of peritectic carbon steels have been investigated by metallographic study of collected slab samples and by performing a set of mathematical analyses. The metallographic study involved plant trails to measure slab surface temperature of different secondary spray cooling conditions. Also, macro–microexaminations, measurements of dendrite arm spacing, macrosegregation analysis, and interdendritic distance between the dendrites of collected samples from plant trials have been performed. The experimental results show a fluctuation of carbon segregation with respect to distance from slab surface. These results also reveal that the interdendritic cracks vary with this fluctuation in various nano, macro, and microscales based on the cooling conditions. A mathematical model of heat transfer, solidification, structure evolution, interdendritic strain, macrosegregation, and elementary interdendritic area “EIA” has been developed. This model takes also into account the calculating of interdendritic distance between the dendrites “IDD” to evaluate the interdendritic crack width. The model predictions of different thermal and solidification phenomena show a good agreement with measurements. The results pointed out also that the coupled effect of interdendritic strain and macrosegregation phenomena and their distributions can be considered as the most important tools to evaluate the surface and internal interdendritic cracks in continuously cast steel slabs. The formation mechanisms of different types of interdendritic crack with interdendritic strain patterns and fluctuation of macrosegregation levels during various cooling zones have been explained, and the possible solutions to these problems have been discussed.     

B级船板钢形变断裂过程的原位研究

 在扫描电子显微镜下观察分析了B级船板钢试样在原位拉伸过程中的断裂行为以及低温脆性断口中二次裂纹的扩展。结果表明：在拉伸变形过程中,微裂纹首先在试样缺口处形成,然后沿铁素体+珠光体界面扩展。加载过程中,多边形铁素体发生塑性变形,裂纹在基体内以“Z”字型扩展。在低温脆性断裂区,二次裂纹以穿晶方式通过铁素体基体,在扩展到珠光体区域时有时沿铁素体和珠光体的界面扩展,有时穿过珠光体区域扩展。     

Cr-Mo钢板常见表面裂纹原因分析及改进措施

Cr-Mo钢板属贝氏体型合金钢,在空冷条件下产生贝氏体组织.由于制造反应容器用Cr-Mo钢板多为大单重、大厚度截面,容易产生组织应力与热应力,如果在生产过程中控制不当可导致表面裂纹.常见的表面裂纹分为钢锭和来料板坯裂纹、轧前加热裂纹、轧制过程中的拉裂和炸裂、轧后应力裂纹及切割裂纹等,本文对表面裂纹特征及其产生原因进行分析,并提出相应的预防和改进措施.     

Surface Cracks in Wire Rod Rolling

Surface defects in wire rod and bar rolling are common and well‐known to mill people. Nowadays, surface defects are not accepted on high‐alloyed steel wire rods. The steel making, casting and rolling processes give rise to defects. Also, the final handling of the wire and bar can destroy the surface. In this work, artificial V‐shaped cracks in the longitudinal direction were investigated for different reduction series. The false round‐oval series are known as a series for high quality steels and are usually better than square–oval series. Experiments confirmed that in the false round‐oval sequences a surface crack in the groove bottom may open up during rolling at the same time as its depth is reduced, which is a beneficial situation. Surface cracks found at 45° to the rolling direction, at groove “corners” and on free surfaces will be closed or reduced in depth. The closing of cracks is detrimental since the cracks usually hide rolled‐in oxides beneath the bar surface. The experiments showed that for the subsequent oval–false round sequence the visible crack at the groove bottom will be closed and become shallower. The cracks at 45° and on the free sides will also be closed, but deeper causing a serious surface defect. An FE‐analysis was carried out, explaining the experimental results. Flat oval grooves are better than round ovals and false rounds are superior to square for opening and decreasing the depth of a longitudinal crack. It is difficult to eliminate a surface defect constituting a closed crack.     

双辊铸轧704不锈钢薄带的冷轧实验

对双辊铸轧704不锈钢薄带进行了冷轧处理,分析了冷轧前后薄带的表面质量及显微组织.结果表明:在冷轧过程中,因动态再结晶和动态回复,使薄带的晶粒进一步得到细化.变形量过大时,冷轧薄带内部出现微观晶界裂纹,并随着变形量的增加最终发展成宏观裂纹.笔者还应用金属学、结晶热力学对晶界裂纹的产生机理进行了分析,认为当冷轧变形量达到一定程度后必须对薄带进行固溶处理,以避免裂纹出现.另外,结合冷轧过程中薄带板形的变化,对704不锈钢铸轧薄带给出了合理的冷轧变形量.     

连铸中碳钢用CK—2保护渣的研制

中碳钢亦称裂纹敏感性钢,在加铸过程中容易产生铸坯表面纵裂纹等缺陷,使用性能合适的保护渣可以改善结晶器内初始坯壳的传热条件,控制表面裂纹的产生,介绍了研制武钢三炼钢厂中碳钢用保护渣的过程及裂纹控制效果,分析了保护渣使用过程的性能变化和渣膜微观结构。     

CCSD36船板钢表面裂纹分析

通过分析铸坯裂纹,探讨了CCSD36钢产生表面裂纹的原因。研究结果表明：CCSD36钢表面裂纹主要是由板坯的原始裂纹遗传而来,它起源于结晶器内,经二冷和轧制后使其扩展延伸。在高温下,因裂纹两侧形成了部分氧化层使其在轧制中难以焊合。在裂纹内部及其周围存在大量的高熔点低塑性的钙铝酸盐、硅酸盐等夹杂,其含量严重偏离正常状态。当这类夹杂被表面层和氧化层＂捕获＂,受轧制力作用时导致表层开裂,使裂纹在铸坯凝固及轧制中进一步扩展或形成新的裂纹。     

Cu、As、Sn对C-Mn钢热轧板表面质量的影响

通过扫描电子显微镜和X-射线能谱分析研究了C-Mn钢(%:0.13～0.20C、1.00～1.60Mn、0.09Cu、0.07As、0.05Sn)连铸坯热轧的25 mm板表面微裂纹。结果表明,热轧板表面裂纹两侧存在薄的氧化脱碳层,裂纹沿晶界开裂,裂纹附近的基体处存在Cu、As、Sn低熔点富集相。实际生产中当钢中的Cu、As、Sn含量分别控制≤0.02%,可基本消除热轧板表面网状裂纹。     

倒角结晶器在涟钢板坯连铸生产中的应用

 为了消除微合金化钢连铸板坯的角部裂纹缺陷,使得板坯在不进行离线切角的条件下满足轧制要求,采用倒角结晶器技术进行了大量的工业试验,分析并解决了倒角型板坯存在的角纵裂及结疤问题,实现了该技术的规模化连续生产。工业应用结果表明,倒角结晶器技术不仅能够控制板坯的角横裂缺陷,而且能够大幅度降低超低碳钢热轧板卷边直裂的发生率,因此可为钢铁企业带来巨大的经济效益。     

Influence of indentation crack configuration on strength and fatigue behaviour of soda-lime silicate glass

Depending on the conditions under which an indentation is performed or indented specimen stored, different crack configurations can be obtained. In this work, the influence of these different configurations on the failure process, strength and fatigue behaviour of soda-lime silicate glass, was investigated. To obtain the different crack geometries, indentations were performed in moist air and deionized water with two different dwell times. In this way, typical “half-penny” and deeper “circular” cracks were obtained. Both as-indented and annealed samples were studied. An extensive fractographical analysis revealed a strong “pinning” effect of lateral cracks on the radial crack propagation for indentations obtained in air with short dwell times. Strength measured both in inert and active environments was shown to be lower for indentations obtained in water with longer dwell times. An analogous trend was observed for the lifetime results obtained in static fatigue. Some discrepancies were observed in time-to-failure predictions for “half-penny” indentation cracks and these were related to the interaction between the lateral and radial cracks.     

X70管线钢DWTT试样的分层裂纹及其断口评价

通过对管线钢不同温度的落锤撕裂试验和微观断口分析,研究了DWTT试样断口的分层裂纹及其对断裂的影响.结果表明,分层裂纹是受力变形时管线钢内部的薄弱界面受到三维应力作用的结果.分层裂纹出现于主裂纹起裂或加速之前,裂纹稳定扩展或减速时不会产生新的分层裂纹.分层裂纹的数量、张开程度和分层裂纹间距与主裂纹起裂或加速时的应力状态有关,而分层裂纹的长度与裂纹扩展时裂尖的应力状态有关.分层裂纹表面为解理形貌,解理面较大.韧脆转变温度以下的脆性断裂断口或韧脆转变温度附近混合型断口的脆性断裂区,不出现分层裂纹,仅在韧性断口或断口的韧性区出现宏观分层裂纹.研究表明,产生分层裂纹处的断口,分层裂纹无论是三角形分布或是其它形状分布,该区域均应评价为韧性.     

Vertical Short Crack Initiation in Medium Carbon Bainitic Steel Under Mild Tractive Rolling Contact

To improve the current grinding procedure of the back-up roll of CVC hot rolling mills so that the back-up roll service life can be extended, the crack initiation and propagation behavior of medium carbon bainitic back-up roll steel was investigated, a kind of asperity-scale, surface originated vertical short cracks occurred at 5 × 10^2 -1 × 10^4 cycles. Theoretical analysis indicated that the maximum tensile stress occurring at the back edge of the contact of asperities keeps at above 1 347. 97 MPa, and ratcheting and cyclic plastic deformation take place at such sites within 1 × 10^4 cycles. The early initiation of the vertical short cracks is caused by the asperity contact. According to the crack initiation mechanism, short crack behavior and preventive grinding strategy, steel consumption can be reduced considerably by decreasing the surface roughness and removing the asperity influenced surface thin layer at about 70%-80% of the surface distress life.     

Surface Wave Based Ultrasonic Technique for Finding the Optimal Grinding Condition of High Speed Steel (HSS) Work Rolls

Over the last few years, the use of work rolls for hot rolling of flat steel has been changed from clear chill rolls to indefinite chill, then high chrome steel and now high speed tool steel (HSS). HSS rolls are highly crack‐sensitive because of its high surface hardness. The crack propagation develops within the working surface of the roll, gradually increases in depth and width followed by a large “cats‐tongue” band type spalls of the overlying barrel surface and that leads to abnormal roll failure. This paper presents the development of surface wave based ultrasonic technique to optimize the grinding procedure for having crack free roll surface.     

12CrlMoV钢轧材表面裂纹控制技术的研究与应用

针对12Cr1MoV钢在生产过程中出现不同程度的表面裂纹,采用金相显微镜以及扫描电镜检测确认,轧材裂纹是由铸坯裂纹导致。对裂纹的形成原因进行了分析,得出钢水洁净度,钢水氮含量以及结晶器保护渣是导致铸坯裂纹的主要原因,通过控制电弧炉终点碳、优化精炼渣系以及钙化处理脱氧产物提升钢水洁净度,控制圆坯表面氮化物析出,保证钢中N含量 < 0.007%,同时使用管坯钢保护渣,使得12Cr1MoV钢表面裂纹缺陷率由1.6%下降到0.3%。     

Q345GJC钢板裂纹原因分析及控制

取样分析了高层建筑结构钢Q345GJC钢板的裂纹原因,结果表明,Q345GJC钢板上的裂纹是由于铸坯上产生的皮下裂纹所致,而且微合金化元素添加量及种类越多,连铸坯的裂纹敏感性越强。采取措施后,有效控制了Q345GJC钢板的裂纹发生率。     

CaO-SiO2 -A2O3系保护渣加Li2O对高铝钢20Mn23AlV连铸板坯表面纵裂纹的影响

研究了 1.5%～2.5% Al的20Mn23AlV钢200 mm × 1260 mm铸坯表面纵裂纹产生机理。结果表明:20Mn23AlV表面纵裂纹与结晶器保护渣变性有关。保护渣渣中加入5.49%的Li₂O大幅提高了该钢种浇注过程保护渣理化指标的稳定性,且有利于将该钢种连铸坯表面纵裂发生几率由23.8%降至0.3%以下。     

Fracture Behavior of Cold Sprayed 304 Stainless Steel Coating During Cold Rolling

 The fracture behavior of cold sprayed 304 stainless steel coating in cold rolling process was studied. The 304 stainless steel coatings were deposited on low carbon steel substrate by cold gas dynamic spray (CGDS) and then cold rolled, respectively. The fracture morphology of the coatings was observed and analyzed, and the crack distributions along the longitudinal rolling direction of the coatings were also investigated and discussed. The results showed that the cohesive strength of the cold sprayed 304 stainless steel coating was too low to be cold rolled. Microcracks were formed in the as-sprayed coatings and ran perpendicularly to the rolling direction. The spacing distance between these cracks decreased with the increase of the cold rolling reduction. In addition, it was also found that the initial crack generated at the surface of the coating and propagated from the surface to the interface along the weakly bonded particles. A theoretical analysis was developed for the coating fracture. It gave a critical minimum cohesive bonding strength of the coating for non-breaking in cold rolling process. The crack propagation manner of the cold rolled coatings was also discussed.     

Cracking phenomena in twin roll strip casting of steel

In thin strip casting of steel surface cracks may occur; it was analysed which influencing parameters are important and how the cracks can be avoided. The studies, mainly with C60‐steel, lead to the following results: the cracks are formed during the casting process under high temperatures; on the strip surface hot and colder areas occur, and the cracks have to be studied in both areas separately; mostly transverse cracks are formed; the crack density depends on roll material, ‐ force, ‐ roughness, ‐ surface layers; the cracks are initiated by a temperature break down and by rolling within the pool range.     

无镍高氮不锈钢弯曲疲劳裂纹萌生与扩展行为

 采用四点弯曲疲劳试验研究了不同应力水平下无镍高氮不锈钢的疲劳行为,并对材料疲劳裂纹的微观形貌、萌生位置及扩展路径进行了分析。结果表明,试验钢疲劳为多裂纹起裂,随着应力水平的升高,裂纹总长度逐渐增加,当应力水平接近材料屈服极限时,裂纹长度趋于稳定;裂纹大多数在滑移带处萌生,裂纹在扩展过程中产生了扭曲、偏移和分叉现象;裂纹在晶内主要沿单滑移带或多滑移带交替扩展,穿过晶界或孪晶界时大多发生了偏转。