Pixel- and feature-level fusion of hyperspectral and lidar data for urban land-use classification

The complexity of urban areas makes it difficult for single-source remotely sensed data to meet all urban application requirements. Airborne light detection and ranging (lidar) can provide precise horizontal and vertical point cloud data, while hyperspectral images can provide hundreds of narrow spectral bands which are sensitive to subtle differences in surface materials. The main objectives of this study are to explore: (1) the performance of fused lidar and hyperspectral data for urban land-use classification, especially the contribution of lidar intensity and height information for land-use classification in shadow areas; and (2) the efficiency of combined pixel- and object-based classifiers for urban land-use classification. Support vector machine (SVM), maximum likelihood classification (MLC), and object-based classifiers were used to classify lidar, hyperspectral data and their derived features, such as the normalized digital surface model (nDSM), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and texture measures, into 15 urban land-use classes. Spatial attributes and rules were used to minimize misclassification of the objects showing similar spectral properties, and accuracy assessments were carried out for the classification results. Compared with hyperspectral data alone, hyperspectral–lidar data fusion improved overall accuracy by 6.8% (from 81.7 to 88.5%) when the SVM classifier was used. Meanwhile, compared with SVM alone, the combined SVM and object-based method improved OA by 7.1% (from 87.6 to 94.7%). The results suggest that hyperspectral–lidar data fusion is effective for urban land-use classification, and the proposed combined pixel- and object-based classifiers are very efficient and flexible for the fusion of hyperspectral and lidar data.     

Type-2 fuzzy logic-based classifier fusion for support vector machines

As a machine-learning tool, support vector machines (SVMs) have been gaining popularity due to their promising performance. However, the generalization abilities of SVMs often rely on whether the selected kernel functions are suitable for real classification data. To lessen the sensitivity of different kernels in SVMs classification and improve SVMs generalization ability, this paper proposes a fuzzy fusion model to combine multiple SVMs classifiers. To better handle uncertainties existing in real classification data and in the membership functions (MFs) in the traditional type-1 fuzzy logic system (FLS), we apply interval type-2 fuzzy sets to construct a type-2 SVMs fusion FLS. This type-2 fusion architecture takes considerations of the classification results from individual SVMs classifiers and generates the combined classification decision as the output. Besides the distances of data examples to SVMs hyperplanes, the type-2 fuzzy SVMs fusion system also considers the accuracy information of individual SVMs. Our experiments show that the type-2 based SVM fusion classifiers outperform individual SVM classifiers in most cases. The experiments also show that the type-2 fuzzy logic-based SVMs fusion model is better than the type-1 based SVM fusion model in general.     

Defending against XML-related attacks in e-commerce applications with predictive fuzzy associative rules

Security administrators need to prioritise which feature to focus on amidst the various possibilities and avenues of attack, especially via Web Service in e-commerce applications. This study addresses the feature selection problem by proposing a predictive fuzzy associative rule model (FARM). FARM validates inputs by segregating the anomalies based fuzzy associative patterns discovered from five attributes in the intrusion datasets. These associative patterns leads to the discovery of a set of 18 interesting rules at 99% confidence and subsequently, categorisation into not only certainly allow/deny but also probably deny access decision class. FARM's classification provides 99% classification accuracy and less than 1% false alarm rate. Our findings indicate two benefits to using fuzzy datasets. First, fuzzy enables the discovery of fuzzy association patterns, fuzzy association rules and more sensitive classification. In addition, the root mean squared error (RMSE) and classification accuracy for fuzzy and crisp datasets do not differ much when using the Random Forest classifier. However, when other classifiers are used with increasing number of instances on the fuzzy and crisp datasets, the fuzzy datasets perform much better. Future research will involve experimentation on bigger data sets on different data types.     

Comparing the performance of fuzzy and crisp classifiers on remotely sensed images: a case of snow classification

This study deals with the evaluation of accuracy benefits offered by a fuzzy classifier as compared to hard classifiers using satellite imagery for thematic mapping applications. When a crisp classifier approach is adopted to classify moderate resolution data, the presence of mixed coverage pixels implies that the final product will have errors, either of omission or commission, which are not avoidable and are solely due to the spatial resolution of the data. Theoretically, a soft classifier is not affected by such errors, and in principle can produce a classification that is more accurate than any hard classifier. In this study we use the Pareto boundary of optimal solutions as a quantitative method to compare the performance of a fuzzy statistical classifier to the one of two hard classifiers, and to determine the highest accuracy which could be achieved by hard classifiers. As an application, the method is applied to a case of snow mapping from Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data on two alpine sites, validated with contemporaneous fine-resolution Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data. The results for this case study showed that the soft classifier not only outperformed the two crisp classifiers, but also yielded higher accuracy than the maximum theoretical accuracy of any crisp classifier on the study areas. While providing a general assessment framework for the performance of soft classifiers, the results obtained by this inter-comparison exercise showed that soft classifiers can be an effective solution to overcome errors which are intrinsic in the classification of coarse and moderate resolution data.     

Fuzzy relational classifier trained by fuzzy clustering

A novel approach to nonlinear classification is presented, in the training phase of the classifier, the training data is first clustered in an unsupervised way by fuzzy c-means or a similar algorithm. The class labels are not used in this step. Then, a fuzzy relation between the clusters and the class identifiers is computed. This approach allows the number of prototypes to be independent of the number of actual classes. For the classification of unseen patterns, the membership degrees of the feature vector in the clusters are first computed by using the distance measure of the clustering algorithm. Then, the output fuzzy set is obtained by relational composition. This fuzzy set contains the membership degrees of the pattern in the given classes. A crisp decision is obtained by defuzzification, which gives either a single class or a "reject" decision, when a unique class cannot be selected based on the available information. The principle of the proposed method is demonstrated on an artificial data set and the applicability of the method is shown on the identification of live-stock from recorded sound sequences. The obtained results are compared with two other classifiers.     

Compact fuzzy association rule-based classifier

Classification is one of the most popular data mining techniques applied to many scientific and industrial problems. The efficiency of a classification model is evaluated by two parameters, namely the accuracy and the interpretability of the model. While most of the existing methods claim their accurate superiority over others, their models are usually complex and hardly understandable for the users. In this paper, we propose a novel classification model that is based on easily interpretable fuzzy association rules and fulfils both efficiency criteria. Since the accuracy of a classification model can be largely affected by the partitioning of numerical attributes, this paper discusses several fuzzy and crisp partitioning techniques. The proposed classification method is compared to 15 previously published association rule-based classifiers by testing them on five benchmark data sets. The results show that the fuzzy association rule-based classifier presented in this paper, offers a compact, understandable and accurate classification model.     

高光谱图像分类的自适应决策融合方法

目的 目前高光谱图像决策融合方法主要采用以多数票决（majority vote，MV）为代表的硬决策融合和以对数意见池（logarithmic opinion pool，LOGP）为代表的软决策融合策略。由于这些方法均使用统一的权重系数进行决策融合，没有对子分类器各自的分类性能进行评估而优化分配权重系数，势必会影响最终的分类精度。针对该问题，本文对多数票决和对数意见池融合策略进行了改进，提出了面向高光谱图像分类的自适应决策融合方法。方法 根据相关系数矩阵对高光谱图像进行波段分组，对每组波段进行空谱联合特征提取；利用高斯混合模型（Gaussian mixture model，GMM）或支持向量机（support vector machine，SVM）分类器对各组空谱联合特征进行分类；最后，采用本文研究的两种基于权重系数优化分配的自适应融合策略对子分类器的分类结果进行决策融合，使得分类精度低的波段组和异常值对最终分类结果的影响达到最小。结果 对两个公开的高光谱数据集分别采用多种特征和两种分类器组合进行实验验证。实验结果表明，在相同特征和分类器条件下，本文提出的自适应多数票决策融合策略（adjust majority vote，adjustMV）、自适应对数意见池决策融合策略（adjust logarithmic opinion pool，adjustLOGP）比传统的MV决策融合策略、LOGP决策融合策略对两个数据集的分类精度均有大幅度提高。Indian Pines数据集上，adjustMV算法的分类精度比相应的MV算法平均提高了1.2%，adjustLOGP算法的分类精度比相应的LOGP算法平均提高了7.38%；Pavia University数据集上，adjustMV算法的分类精度比相应的MV算法平均提高了2.1%，adjustLOGP算法的分类精度比相应的LOGP算法平均提高了4.5%。结论 本文提出的自适应权重决策融合策略为性能较优的子分类器（即对应于分类精度高的波段组）赋予较大的权重，降低了性能较差的子分类器与噪声波段对决策融合结果的影响，从而大幅度提高分类精度。所研究的决策融合策略的复杂度和计算成本均较低，在噪声环境中具有更强的鲁棒性，同时在一定程度上解决了高光谱图像分类应用中普遍存在的小样本问题。     

基于D-S证据理论的掌纹识别

研究了掌纹识别问题,对掌纹图像特征提取、多特征的融合技术作了一定程度的探讨。采用数学形态学方法提取掌纹线特征;基于Gabor滤波器描述掌纹图像的纹理特征。利用掌纹的线特征和纹理特征两个信息分别作两个分类器的特征,利用模糊规则求出各分类器的基本概率分配函数,最后利用D-S证据理论的合成法则对两个分类器的结果进行融合判决。实验结果表明,这种方法是有效的,可行的。     

一种基于Bagging-SVM的智能传感器集成学习方法

集成多个传感器的智能片上系统( SoC)在物联网得到了广泛的应用.在融合多个传感器数据的分类算法方面,传统的支持向量机( SVM)单分类器不能直接对传感器数据流进行小样本增量学习.针对上述问题,提出一种基于Bagging-SVM的集成增量算法,该算法通过在增量数据中采用Bootstrap方式抽取训练集,构造能够反映新信息变化的集成分类器,然后将新老分类器集成,实现集成增量学习.实验结果表明:该算法相比SVM单分类器能够有效降低分类误差,提高分类准确率,且具有较好的泛化能力,可以满足当下智能传感器系统基于小样本数据流的在线学习需求.     

Driver drowsiness detection based on multisource information

Driver drowsiness is one of the major causes of on‐road accidents. Abnormal eye behavior, steering wheel activity, and vehicle trajectory during different drowsiness stages were studied in detail to overcome the limitations of single‐sensor approaches. Some measures, such as percentage of eyelid closure, maximum close duration, and percentage of nonsteering were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) methods. Moreover, a two‐stage data fusion framework was developed for the modeling combination of information from different sources. Fisher's linear discriminant was implied as the feature‐level fusion method, and Dempster‐Shafer evidence theory was introduced in the decision‐level fusion process. The results suggest that the recognition system proposed here provided 90.7% accuracy. The reliability and accuracy of the fusion method were significantly higher than those of single sensors. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

云南香格里拉地区森林优势树种决策融合分类

基于Google Earth Engine（GEE）云计算平台,协同Sentinel-2影像、WordClim生物气候数据、SRTM地形数据、森林资源二类调查数据等数据,以随机森林（Random Forest, RF）,支持向量机（Support Vector Machine, SVM）和最大熵（Maximum Entropy, MaxEnt）3种机器学习算法为组件分类器,开展多源特征、多分类器决策融合的优势树种分类研究。通过3种组件分类器分别构建了两种串行集成和3种贝叶斯并行集成模型,用于确定云南香格里拉地区10种主要优势树种的空间分布。分类结果显示：3个组件分类器的总体精度均低于67.17%;3种并行集成方法总体精度相当,约为72%;两种串行集成方法精度高于78.48%,其中MaxEnt-SVM串行集成方法获得最佳精度（OA：80.66%, Kappa：0.78）,与组件分类器相比精度至少提高了13.49%。研究表明：决策融合方法在优势树种分类中比组件分类器精度更高,并且有效改善了小样本树种的分类精度,可用于大范围山区优势树种分类。     

Input Decimated Ensemble based on Neighborhood Preserving Embedding for spectrogram classification

In this work a novel technique for building ensembles of classifiers for spectrogram classification is presented. We propose a simple approach for classifying signals from a large database of plant echoes, these echoes are highly complex stochastic signals, anyway their spectrograms contain enough information for extracting a good set of features for training the proposed ensemble of classifiers.The proposed ensemble of classifiers is a novel modified version of a recent feature transform based ensemble method: the Input Decimated Ensemble. In the proposed variant different subsets of randomly extracted training patterns are used to create a set of different Neighborhood Preserving Embedding subspace projections. These feature transformations are applied to the whole dataset and a set of decision trees are trained using these transformed spaces. Finally, the scores of this set of classifiers are combined by sum rule.Experiments carried out on a yet proposed dataset show the superiority of this method with respect to other approaches. The proposed approach outperforms the yet proposed, for the tested dataset, combination of principal component analysis and support vector machine (SVM). Moreover, we show that the fusion between the proposed ensemble and the system based on SVM outperforms both the stand-alone methods.     

Pattern Classification With Class Probability Output Network

The output of a classifier is usually determined by the value of a discriminant function and a decision is made based on this output which does not necessarily represent the posterior probability for the soft decision of classification. In this context, it is desirable that the output of a classifier be calibrated in such a way to give the meaning of the posterior probability of class membership. This paper presents a new method of postprocessing for the probabilistic scaling of classifier's output. For this purpose, the output of a classifier is analyzed and the distribution of the output is described by the beta distribution parameters. For more accurate approximation of class output distribution, the beta distribution parameters as well as the kernel parameters describing the discriminant function are adjusted in such a way to improve the uniformity of beta cumulative distribution function (CDF) values for the given class output samples. As a result, the classifier with the proposed scaling method referred to as the class probability output network (CPON) can provide accurate posterior probabilities for the soft decision of classification. To show the effectiveness of the proposed method, the simulation for pattern classification using the support vector machine (SVM) classifiers is performed for the University of California at Irvine (UCI) data sets. The simulation results using the SVM classifiers with the proposed CPON demonstrated a statistically meaningful performance improvement over the SVM and SVM-related classifiers, and also other probabilistic scaling methods.     

EVOR-STACK: A label-dependent evolutive stacking on remote sensing data fusion

Land use and land covers (LULC) maps are remote sensing products that are used to classify areas into different landscapes. Data fusion for remote sensing is becoming an important tool to improve classical approaches. In addition, artificial intelligence techniques such as machine learning or evolutive computation are often applied to improve the final LULC classification. In this paper, a hybrid artificial intelligence method based on an ensemble of multiple classifiers to improve LULC map accuracy is shown. The method works in two processing levels: first, an evolutionary algorithm (EA) for label-dependent feature weighting transforms the feature space by assigning different weights to every attribute depending on the class. Then a statistical raster from LIDAR and image data fusion is built following a pixel-oriented and feature-based strategy that uses a support vector machine (SVM) and a weighted k-NN restricted stacking. A classical SVM, the original restricted stacking (R-STACK) and the current improved method (EVOR-STACK) are compared. The results show that the evolutive approach obtains the best results in the context of the real data from a riparian area in southern Spain.     

On-line anomaly detection and resilience in classifier ensembles

Detection of anomalies is a broad field of study, which is applied in different areas such as data monitoring, navigation, and pattern recognition. In this paper we propose two measures to detect anomalous behaviors in an ensemble of classifiers by monitoring their decisions; one based on Mahalanobis distance and another based on information theory. These approaches are useful when an ensemble of classifiers is used and a decision is made by ordinary classifier fusion methods, while each classifier is devoted to monitor part of the environment. Upon detection of anomalous classifiers we propose a strategy that attempts to minimize adverse effects of faulty classifiers by excluding them from the ensemble. We applied this method to an artificial dataset and sensor-based human activity datasets, with different sensor configurations and two types of noise (additive and rotational on inertial sensors). We compared our method with two other well-known approaches, generalized likelihood ratio (GLR) and One-Class Support Vector Machine (OCSVM), which detect anomalies at data/feature level.     

基于支持向量机的纸张缺陷图像分类识别

根据支持向量机（SVM）在小样本、高维模式分类中具有的优良分类性能,提出将支持向量机应用于实际的纸张缺陷分类。针对三种现场易出现的缺陷,通过对缺陷图像进行预处理、特征选择,再利用SVM进行分类,利用交叉验证进行参数和模型选取,取得了较好的分类效果,为纸张缺陷的分类指出一种可行的方法。     

Deep feature learning versus shallow feature learning systems for joint use of airborne thermal hyperspectral and visible remote sensing data

Recently, the development of various remote sensing sensors has provided more reliable information and data for identification of different ground classes. Accordingly, multisensory fusion techniques are applied to enhance the process of information extraction from complementary airborne and spaceborne remote sensing data. Most of previous research in the literature has focused on the extraction of shallow features from a specific sensor and on classification of the resulted feature space using decision fusion systems. In recent years, Deep Learning (DL) algorithms have drawn a lot of attention in the machine learning area and have had different remote sensing applications, especially on data fusion. This study presents two different feature-learning strategies for the fusion of hyperspectral thermal infrared (HTIR) and visible remote sensing data. First, a Deep Convolutional Neural Network (DCNN)-Support Vector Machine (SVM) was utilized on the features of two datasets to provide the class labels. To validate the results with other learning strategies, a shallow feature model was used, as well. This model was based on feature fusion and decision fusion that classified and fused the two datasets. A co-registered thermal infrared hyperspectral (HTIR) and Fine Resolution Visible (Vis) RGB imagery was available from Quebec of Canada to examine the effectiveness of the proposed method. Experimental results showed that, except for the computational time, the proposed deep learning model outperformed shallow feature-based strategies in the classification performance that was based on its accuracy.     

SVM在多源遥感图像分类中的应用研究

在利用遥感图像进行土地利用/覆盖分类过程中,可采用以下两种途径来提高分类精度:一是通过增加有利于分类的数据源,引入地理辅助数据和归一化植被指数(NDVI)来进行多源信息融合;二是选择更好的分类方法,例如支持向量机(SVM)学习方法,由于该方法克服了最大似然法和神经网络的弱点,非常适合高维、复杂的小样本多源数据的分类。为了提高多源遥感图像分类的精度,还研究了支持向量机在遥感图像分类中模型的选择,包括多类模型和核函数的选择。分类结果表明,支持向量机比传统的分类方法具有更高的精度,尤其是基于径向基核函数和一对一多类方法的支持向量机模型更适合多源遥感图像分类,因此,基于支持向量机的多源土地利用/覆盖分类能大大提高分类精度。     

Advocating the Use of Imprecisely Observed Data in Genetic Fuzzy Systems

In our opinion, and in accordance with current literature, the precise contribution of genetic fuzzy systems to the corpus of the machine learning theory has not been clearly stated yet. In particular, we question the existence of a set of problems for which the use of fuzzy rules, in combination with genetic algorithms, produces more robust models, or classifiers that are inherently better than those arising from the Bayesian point of view. We will show that this set of problems actually exists, and comprises interval and fuzzy valued datasets, but it is not being exploited. Current genetic fuzzy classifiers deal with crisp classification problems, where the role of fuzzy sets is reduced to give a parametric definition of a set of discriminant functions, with a convenient linguistic interpretation. Provided that the customary use of fuzzy sets in statistics is vague data, we propose to test genetic fuzzy classifiers over imprecisely measured data and design experiments well suited to these problems. The same can be said about genetic fuzzy models: the use of a scalar fitness function assumes crisp data, where fuzzy models, a priori, do not have advantages over statistical regression.     

基于核聚类的SVM多类分类方法

对支持向量机的多类分类问题进行研究，提出了一种基于核聚类的多类分类方法。利用核聚类方法将原始样本特征映射到高维特征进行聚类分组，对每一组使用一个支持向量机二值分类器进行分类，并用这些二值分类器组成决策树的节点，构成了一个决策分类树。给出决策树的生成算法，提出了利用交叠系数来控制交叠，从而克服错分积累，提高分类准确率。实验结果表明，采用该方法，手写体汉字识别速度和正确率都达到了实用的要求。