Global Market for Dairy Proteins

This review examines the global market for dairy ingredients by assessing the global demand for dairy products in relation to major dairy ingredient categories. Each broad category of dairy ingredients is reviewed including its definition, production and trade status, key applications, and future trends. Ingredient categories examined include whole and skim milk powders (WMPs, SMPs), whey protein concentrates (WPCs) and whey protein isolates (WPIs), milk protein concentrates (MPCs) and milk protein isolates (MPIs), caseins, and caseinates. Increases in world population and improvements in socioeconomic conditions will continue to drive the demand for dairy products and ingredients in the future. Dairy proteins are increasingly recognized to have nutritional and functional advantages compared to many protein sources, and the variety of ingredients with different protein concentrations, functionality, and flavor can meet the needs of the increasingly global dairy consumption. A thorough understanding of the variety of ingredients, how the ingredients are derived from milk, and how the demand from particular markets affects the supply situation are critical elements in understanding the current ingredient marketplace.     

Invited review: Microfiltration-derived casein and whey proteins from milk

Milk, a rich source of nutrients, can be fractionated into a wide range of components for use in foods and beverages. With advancements in filtration technologies, micellar caseins and milk-derived whey proteins are now produced from skim milk using microfiltration. Microfiltered ingredients offer unique functional and nutritional benefits that can be exploited in new product development. Microfiltration offers promise in cheesemaking, where microfiltered milk can be used for protein standardization to improve the yield and consistency of cheese and help with operation throughputs. Micellar casein concentrates and milk whey proteins could offer unique functional and flavor properties in various food applications. Consumer desires for safe, nutritious, and clean-label foods could be potential growth opportunities for these new ingredients. The application of micellar casein concentrates in protein standardization could offer a window of opportunity to US cheese makers by improving yields and throughputs in manufacturing plants.     

Sheep Milk: Physicochemical Characteristics and Relevance for Functional Food Development

Sheep milk has a high nutritional value and high concentrations of proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins, as compared to the milks of other domestic species. The physicochemical and nutritional characteristics of sheep milk can be advantageous for the manufacture of products containing prebiotic ingredients and/or probiotic bacteria, which are major categories in the functional food market. Following this technological trend, this review will address the characteristics and advantages of sheep milk as a potentially functional food, as well as the development of sheep milk dairy products containing prebiotics and/or probiotics.     

The use of high-fat and specialized milk powders*

The pressures of consumer demand and competition drive food manufacturers to continually reek new, innovative and functional food ingredients, which assist in product range diversification or a reduction in manufacturing costs or both. The dairy industry has responded to the needs of food manufacturers by supplying a variety of milk based ingredients which offer convenience, functional performance, the unique flavours associated with milk products and cost benefits. These ingredients utilize for the most part the intrinsic properties of the major components of milk in the way they perform. However, the dairy technologist has also sought to modify the properties of milk fat, proteins and the carbohydrate lactose to broaden the capability of milk based ingredients, thus tailoring ingredients for specific uses in particular applications. Ingredients offered by the dairy industry and aspects of their manufacture and use are discussed, with some consideration of the forces which will influence future developments in this field.     

A 100-Year Review: Progress on the chemistry of milk and its components

Understanding the chemistry of milk and its components is critical to the production of consistent, high-quality dairy products as well as the development of new dairy ingredients. Over the past 100 yr we have gone from believing that milk has only 3 protein fractions to identifying all the major and minor types of milk proteins as well as discovering that they have genetic variants. The structure and physical properties of most of the milk proteins have been extensively studied. The structure of the casein micelle has been the subject of many studies, and the initial views on submicelles have given way to the current model of the micelle as being assembled as a result of the concerted action of several types of interactions (including hydrophobic and the formation of calcium phosphate nanoclusters). The benefits of this improved knowledge of the type and nature of casein interactions include better control of the cheesemaking process, more functional milk powders, development of new products such as cream liqueurs, and expanded food applications. Increasing knowledge of proteins and minerals was paralleled by developments in the analysis of milk fat and its synthesis together with greater knowledge of its packaging in the milk fat globule membrane. Advances in analytical techniques have been essential to the isolation and characterization of milk components. Milk testing has progressed from gross compositional analyses of the fat and total solids content to the rapid analysis of milk for a wide range of components for various purposes, such as diagnostic issues related to animal health. Up to the 1950s, research on dairy chemistry was mostly focused on topics such as protein fractionation, heat stability, acid–base buffering, freezing point, and the nature of the calcium phosphate present in milk. Between the 1950s and 1970s, there was a major focus on identifying all the main protein types, their sequences, variants, association behavior, and other physical properties. During the 1970s and 1980s, one of the major emphases in dairy research was on protein functionality and fractionation processes. The negative cloud over dairy fat has lifted recently due to multiple reviews and meta-analyses showing no association with chronic issues such as cardiovascular disease, but changing consumer misconceptions will take time. More recently, there has been a great deal of interest in the biological and nutritional components in milk and how these materials were uniquely designed by the cow to achieve this type of purpose.     

Maximizing the value of milk through separation technologies.

Milk is the source of a wide range of proteins that deliver nutrition to the most promising new food products today. Isolated milk proteins are natural, trusted food ingredients with excellent functionality. Separation technologies provide the basis for adding value to milk through the production of proteins that provide the food industry with ingredients to meet specific needs, not possible with milk itself or with other ingredients. The major milk proteins, casein and whey protein, can be isolated by manipulating their compositional and physical properties and then by using various separation technologies to recover the proteins. Additionally, they can be processed in various ways to create a wide range of ingredients with diverse functional characteristics. These ingredients include milk protein concentrate, milk protein isolate, casein, caseinate, whey protein concentrate, whey protein isolate, hydrolysates, and various milk fractions. Within each of these ingredient categories, there is further differentiation according to the functional and nutritional requirements of the finished food. Adding value to milk by expanding from consumer products to ingredients often requires different technologies, marketing structure and distribution channels. The worldwide market for both consumer products and ingredients from milk continues to grow. Technology often precedes market demand. Methods for the commercial production of individual milk components now exist, and in the future as clinical evidence develops, the opportunity for adding value to dairy products as functional foods with health benefits may be achieved. The research and development of today will be the basis of those value-added milk products for tomorrow.     

植物蛋白与乳蛋白在肉制品加工中的应用

植物蛋白和乳蛋白由于具有较高的营养价值和优良的功能特性,作为食品配料被广泛应用于肉类工业。本文简要介绍了肉制品加工中使用的植物蛋白与乳蛋白、植物蛋白与乳蛋白在肉制品加工中应用的主要功能特性及植物蛋白与乳蛋白在肉制品加工中的作用。     

The Distribution of Fat in Dried Dairy Particles Determines Flavor Release and Flavor Stability

Dried dairy ingredients are utilized in various food and beverage applications for their nutritional, functional, and sensory properties. Dried dairy ingredients include milk powders of varying fat content and heat treatment and buttermilk powder, along with both milk and whey proteins of varying protein contents. The flavor of these ingredients is the most important characteristic that determines consumer acceptance of the ingredient applications. Lipid oxidation is the main mechanism for off‐flavor development in dried dairy ingredients. The effects of various unit operations on the flavor of dried dairy ingredients have been investigated. Recent research documented that increased surface free fat in spray dried WPC80 was associated with increased lipid oxidation and off‐flavors. Surface free fat in spray‐dried products is fat on the surface of the powder that is not emulsified. The most common emulsifiers present in dried dairy ingredients are proteins and phospholipids. Currently, only an association between surface free fat and lipid oxidation has been presented. The link between surface free fat in dried dairy ingredients and flavor and flavor stability has not been investigated. In this review, some hypotheses for the role of surface free fat on the flavor of dried dairy ingredients are presented along with proposed mechanisms.     

乳清蛋白及与其它乳成分的热聚合作用机制研究进展

乳蛋白决定奶类品质,而热加工会影响乳清蛋白尤其是β-乳球蛋白的稳定性。热处理时,乳清蛋白不仅自身发生不同程度的聚合,而且通过巯基-二硫键分别与酪蛋白胶束和乳脂球膜蛋白发生结合。乳清蛋白亦可与其它乳成分如乳糖、钙盐、乳脂发生热聚合作用。本文根据乳品受热温度的不同,针对乳清蛋白间及其与其它乳成分的相互作用途径进行分析,阐明热聚合作用过程及机理,对改善乳制品的热稳定性、凝胶性等功能性质具有重要的理论意义,拓宽乳清蛋白作为配料在相关食品体系中的应用。     

不同哺乳动物乳中主要营养成分比较的研究进展

通过对牛乳、水牛乳、绵羊乳、山羊乳、骆驼乳和人乳中的蛋白质、脂肪、乳糖、矿物质和维生素等主要营养成分进行比较,发现山羊乳总体营养成分接近于人乳,对婴幼儿有极高的营养价值;绵羊乳和水牛乳中干物质含量较高,有利于开发成乳粉类产品;骆驼乳中含有丰富的不饱和脂肪酸,应在功能食品开发方面加以重视。     

Acid induced gelation behavior of skim milk concentrated by membrane filtration

This work reports a detailed study of the effect of ultrafiltration (UF) and diafiltration (DF) on the acid-induced gelation behavior of fresh milk retentates (2× and 4×). Concentrates were heated at 80°C for 15 min, and compared to unheated samples. The use of extensive DF caused a significantly greater amount of protein (both caseins and whey proteins) in the supernatant fraction, compared to UF retentates at the same concentration, both in unheated and heated samples. DF retentates showed higher pH of gelation, compared to the corresponding UF retentates. The development of tan δ is reported for the first time as a function of colloidal calcium release, and the protein gelation behavior discussed in light differences in composition of the soluble fraction. The results demonstrate how processing history can affect compositional changes and the gelation behavior of fresh milk retentates. Membrane filtration is a widespread unit operation in the dairy industry, employed either to prepare fresh concentrates for further processing, or ingredients with specific functional properties. This work describes in detail the effect of processing history during membrane filtration on the rheological properties of acid induced gels and will help in optimizing formulations and prepare the right ingredients for the right application. It will also be possible to determine new ways to define processing quality of the milk protein concentrates, as it relates to their ability to form texture in fermented dairy products.     

山羊乳及其制品营养与功能特性的研究进展

山羊乳及相关制品由于丰富的营养价值和良好的健康功效受到越来越多消费者的关注。山羊乳属于一种资源稀缺型特种乳,与牛乳相比,其干物质含量较高、易消化,且致敏性较低,还是多种生物活性成分的良好来源。因此,山羊乳可用于加工制作适合各种人群的保健性能产品,也可作为益生元和益生菌等功能成分的载体。本文就山羊乳营养成分、功能特性以及加工处理等研究领域的前沿成果进行综述,着重介绍山羊乳相关制品预防与缓解多种疾病的作用与机制,为山羊乳高值化产品的开发提供参考。     

食品中乳蛋白的重要作用

乳蛋白具有许多令人关注的特性，包括营养、理化、功能、工艺、生理保健等特性．被广泛地应用于乳制品、乳饮料和保健食品等．作者首先介绍了乳蛋白的一些特性，然后描述了富含蛋白质的主要乳制品，包括产量较大的干酪、乳粉和产量较小的特殊制品如酪蛋白和乳清蛋白制品．     

Commercial Milk Enzyme‐Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) Kit Reactivities to Purified Milk Proteins and Milk‐Derived Ingredients

Numerous commercial enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits exist to quantitatively detect bovine milk residues in foods. Milk contains many proteins that can serve as ELISA targets including caseins (α‐, β‐, or κ‐casein) and whey proteins (α‐lactalbumin or β‐lactoglobulin). Nine commercially‐available milk ELISA kits were selected to compare the specificity and sensitivity with 5 purified milk proteins and 3 milk‐derived ingredients. All of the milk kits were capable of quantifying nonfat dry milk (NFDM), but did not necessarily detect all individual protein fractions. While milk‐derived ingredients were detected by the kits, their quantitation may be inaccurate due to the use of different calibrators, reference materials, and antibodies in kit development. The establishment of a standard reference material for the calibration of milk ELISA kits is increasingly important. The appropriate selection and understanding of milk ELISA kits for food analysis is critical to accurate quantification of milk residues and informed risk management decisions.     

Technological,nutritional and sensory properties of pasta fortified with agro-industrial by-products: a review

Reducing food waste is a priority to move towards more sustainable food systems. Since agro-food by-products are often rich in healthy compounds, such as fibre, phytochemicals, protein, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals, the waste valorisation could move through their transformation into ingredients useful for the formulation of functional foods. Pasta is a staple food widely consumed all over the world representing an optimal carrier for nutrients delivery. The incorporation of ingredients of a high added value obtained by agro-industrial by-products in pasta can improve its nutritional value and provides several health benefits. At the same time, the inclusion of new ingredients could modify the physical, chemical and textural properties determining the change of the organoleptic characteristics of fortified pasta, affecting its acceptability. Thus, the preparation of new pasta formulations with high nutritional properties, good technological and sensory characteristics represents a challenge for the food industry.     

Aspects of milk-protein-stabilised emulsions

Milk proteins are widely used as ingredients in prepared foods, in which they perform a wide range of key functions, including emulsification, thickening, gelling and foaming. An important functionality of milk proteins in food colloids is their ability to facilitate the formation and stabilisation of oil droplets in emulsions. The ability of milk proteins to adsorb at the oil–water interface and to stabilise emulsions has been exploited by the food industry in the manufacture of nutritional products, specialised medical foods, dietary formulations, cream liqueurs and dairy desserts. This article provides an overview of the properties and functionalities of food emulsions formed with milk proteins, focusing on the structure and composition of adsorbed protein layers, competition between proteins and the physical and chemical stability of emulsion droplets. Of particular importance is the understanding of the behaviour of milk-protein-based emulsions under the conditions relevant to digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract. Recent relevant research in this area is reviewed and discussed.     

Lactose: Use,measurement, and expression of results

Lactose has different uses in the dairy, food, and pharmaceutical industries. Being aware of the different forms of lactose and their concentrations can be very helpful in managing dairy product quality, properties, and manufacturing efficiency. Correct measurement and reporting of lactose concentration in milk and other dairy products will be of increased importance in the future as more value-added uses of lactose are developed and as milk lactose data are used in farm management decision making. Lactose should be reported as anhydrous lactose because lactose data will be used to make increasingly important decisions in dairy processing, dairy product labeling, and milk production in the future. Lactose also plays an important role in milk synthesis within a cow. Milk production factors and dairy cattle breed selection influence the amount of high value fat and protein produced per unit of lactose. If the off-farm value of lactose remains low, more attention may be focused on using ultrafiltration to process milk and leave 50 to 60% of the lactose and water from milk at the farm to recover the energy value of the lactose as feed and reduce the hauling cost of the high value components of milk to a dairy product manufacturing factory. Many methods exist to determine lactose concentration, but the most important methods are enzymatic assays, HPLC, and mid-infrared analysis. New, value-added uses for lactose need to be developed. Consistent and accurate methods of lactose measurement and consistent expression of lactose results will support this development process. Starting in January 2017, the USDA Federal Milk Market Laboratories began reporting lactose content of milk as anhydrous lactose and discontinued the reporting of lactose by difference.     

Nonbovine milk and its products as sources of probiotics delivery: An overview of its viability,functionality and product quality characteristics

Dairy products are the most predominant food carriers for probiotics, providing adequate therapeutic and functional benefits to the host when sufficient probiotics are maintained. Bovine milk currently dominates the global probiotic food market, but there is an increasing trend of applying nonbovine milk from other dairy animals as probiotic carrier food matrices as described in this review. Nonbovine dairy products can be considered suitable food matrices for probiotic delivery due to their excellent probiotic viability (mostly >log 7 cfu/mL or g) during shelf life, functional properties and product quality characteristics, being considered desirable and novel dairy products.     

不同乳源动物成分鉴别技术研究进展

随着我国经济的发展,人民生活水平不断提高,乳制品成为日常饮食的重要组成部分。乳制品含有促进人体生长发育及维持健康必需的营养成分,驴乳、驼乳、牦牛乳等特种乳因其良好的营养价值而越来越受到人们欢迎。由于特种乳具有良好市场前景且其产量较低,目前市场中特种乳价格普遍高于牛乳,受经济利益驱动的影响,乳源掺假问题日益凸显,掺假鉴别成为近年来研究的热点。针对乳制品中乳源掺假问题,国内外研究学者已经建立了多种鉴别的方法,本文从基于核酸、蛋白、化合物的方法和智能无损检测四个方面对乳及乳制品乳源鉴别方法现状进行了概述,并对4种方法做出总结和比较,对未来需要解决的问题进行了探讨。     

乳制品对骨质疏松症的预防和干预作用研究进展

骨质疏松症困扰着全球2亿患者,随着全球人口老龄化的加剧,骨质疏松发病率将不断增加,预防骨质疏松成为公共卫生领域亟待解决的问题。本文分析了乳制品基质、矿物质、维生素、乳蛋白、乳脂和乳糖调节肠道菌群对钙吸收和骨骼健康的作用机制,综述了强化添加VD、益生元和益生菌的乳制品对不同人群的干预效果及降低骨质疏松风险的研究进展,比较了乳制品与植物基替代品的干预功效,为乳制品精准干预改善骨骼健康提供科学参考。