Updated molecular knowledge about histamine biosynthesis by bacteria

Histamine poisoning is caused by the ingestion of food containing high levels of histamine, a biogenic amine. Histamine could be expected in virtually all foods that contain proteins or free histidine and that are subject to conditions enabling microbial activity. In most histamine-containing foods the majority of the histamine is generated by decarboxylation of the histidine through histidine decarboxylase enzymes derived from the bacteria present in food. Bacterial histidine decarboxylases have been extensively studied and characterized in different organisms and two different enzymes groups have been distinguished, pyridoxal phosphate- and the pyruvoyl-dependent. Pyridoxal phosphate-dependent histidine decarboxylases are encountered in gram-negative bacteria belonging to various species. Pyruvoyl-dependent histidine decarboxylases are found in gram-positive bacteria and specially in lactic acid bacteria implicated in food fermentation or spoilage. The molecular organization of the genes involved in histamine production have been elucidated in several histamine-producer bacteria. This molecular knowledge has led to the development of molecular methods for the rapid detection of bacteria possessing the ability to produce histamine. The detection of histamine-producer bacteria is of great importance for its potential health hazard as well as from an economic point of view since products exceeding recommended limits can be refused in commercial transactions.     

鲭鱼品质评价及品质变化与组胺含量研究进展

海水鱼类的新鲜度体现了鱼肉的可食用价值,海水鱼中的青皮红肉鱼类含有较高的组氨酸,会因保存不当导致体内组胺含量升高,对消费者健康产生危害。组胺是一种食源性化学危害,易导致过敏人群产生中毒现象。组胺中毒又称为鲭鱼中毒,是组胺引起毛细血管扩张和支气管收缩所致,研究表明鲭科鱼类的组氨酸含量高,组氨酸会在产组胺微生物的组氨酸脱羧酶的作用下产生组胺,判定组胺中毒的最有效的方法是检测鲭鱼体内的组胺含量,低水平的组胺并不会对人体产生危害,组胺摄入量过多会对人体产生危害,组胺已成为评价鲭鱼品质的标准之一。本文主要对鲭鱼品质的感官评定和理化评定(组胺、K值、挥发性盐基氮等)方式进行综述,并对组胺产生的影响因素如微生物、温度、鱼的种类等进行综述,为鲭鱼品质鉴定和组胺含量的控制提供依据。     

Histamine stability in Rihaakuru at -80, 4 and 30°C

Rihaakuru is a shelf stable fish paste product formed from a fish soup prepared from tuna. Histamine contamination is a food safety issue with this product that is manufactured from tuna fish that has been temperature abused. Histamine concentrations decreased between 31% and 73% in Rihaakuru stored for 10months at either -80, 4 or 30°C. This appears to be a property of the product as histamine solutions are reported to be stable, at least under frozen storage. The risk of histamine food poisoning due to Rihaakuru may reduce during the storage of the product.     

Photobacterium phosphoreum caused a histamine fish poisoning incident

An incident of histamine fish poisoning (HFP) occurred due to the consumption of iwashi maruboshi (dried sardine) in Osaka, Japan in March 2002. A histamine-producing bacterial strain, YS4-7, was isolated from iwashi maruboshi that contained 1700 mg of histamine per kilogram. This strain was identified as Photobacterium phosphoreum by biochemical examinations and partial sequencing of 16S rDNA. P. phosphoreum YS4-7 showed greater capability as a histamine producer at 4 and 12 degrees C than Morganella morganii JCM 1672. Strain YS4-7 produced 546 mg of histamine per kilogram in a sardine homogenate stored for 12 h at 20 degrees C. M. morganii, Raoultella planticola and Hafnia alvei have been isolated from fish implicated in HFP incidents, whereas this is the first report of P. phosphoreum being the causative bacterium in a sporadic case of histamine food poisoning.     

Occurrence of histamine in canned tuna fish from Iran

Histamine fish poisoning is a significant public health and safety concern and also a trade issue. Histamine was investigated in canned tuna fish in Qazvin province from Iran by ELISA method. Histamine was detected in 29.37 % canned tuna fish samples. The overall mean level of histamine was 8.59 ± 14.24 ppm and the concentration was between 2.51 and 74.56 ppm. Except four samples (2.50 %) of 47 positive canned tuna fish samples, histamine content of other positive samples was in compliance with Food and Drug Administration (FDA) legislation (lower than 50 ppm). Most canned tuna fish contain histamine with high mean value was produced in summer (52.50 %) and spring (47.50 %) seasons, the mean levels of histamine were 6.30 and 12.62 ppm in these positive samples, respectively. The results of this study indicate that the most canned tuna fish produced in Qazvin province of Iran has histamine levels lower than the allowable limit suggested by FDA. Further studies should be carried out to investigate the presence of this toxin and other biogenic amines in different fish and sea food products.     

GROWTH OF KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE UH-2 AND PROPERTIES OF ITS HISTIDINE DECARBOXYLASE SYSTEM IN RESTING CELLS1

Klebsiella pneumoniae UH-2, previously isolated from spoiled skipjack tuna grew rapidly at 37C, 25C and 10C (generation times of 0.64, 0.79 and 4.57 h, respectively) and produced large amounts of histamine at these temperatures. Histamine was found during storage of resting cells at 2C, but growth did not occur. The K. pneumoniae UH-2 histidine decarboxylase system has in situ properties that may contribute to rapid histamine formation in fish tissue. The conversion of histidine to histamine in situ had an apparent Km = 0.98 mM at the optimum pH, 4.0, with ca. 70% of this activity at pH 6. These properties and recent reports of its prominence in fish spoilage suggest that K. pneumoniae could play a major role in the formation of histamine in susceptible species.     

A risk-based sampling plan for monitoring of histamine in fish products

In 2008, the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance reported an increase in the number of histamine food poisoning outbreaks and cases in France. The aim of this study was to propose a new monitoring plan for characterizing consumers' exposure to histamine through fishery products. As fish products of concern are numerous, we proposed that the number of samples allocated for a fish category be chosen based on the risk associated with the category. Point risk estimates of histamine poisoning were assessed with the Risk Ranger tool. Fresh fish with high histidine content was found to contribute most to the number of cases. The (estimated) risks associated with the consumption of canned and deep-frozen fish appear marginal as compared with the risk associated with fresh fish with high histidine concentrations. Accordingly, we recommend excluding canned and deep-frozen fish from the monitoring plan, although these risk estimates can be biased. Within a category, samples were proportional to the relative food consumption of the different fishes. The spatial and seasonal consumption patterns were also taken into account for the design of the new monitoring plan. By testing appropriate numbers of samples from categories of fish products of concern, this plan will permit investigation of trends or comparison of product categories presenting risks of histamine poisoning.     

Analysis of cheese for histamine, tyramine, tryptamine, histidine, tyrosine, and tryptophane

A method is described for determining the content of selected biologically active amines (histamine, tyramine, tryptamine) and amino acids (histidine, tyrosine, tryptophane) in cheeses by high performance liquid chromatography. The amines and amino acids were quantified by employing a counter ion-containing mobile phase and by comparing peak areas of high performance liquid chromatography charts for sample cheeses versus standard cheeses containing known amounts of added amines based on dual injections of samples and standards. Recovery of amines and amino acids varied from 87.5 to 111%. Histamine, which has been associated with food poisoning in concentrations of 185 mg/100 g in Swiss cheese and 180 to 500 mg/100 g in fish, was found in concentrations above 500 mg/100 g in Swiss cheese. The high performance liquid chromatography analytical method should be useful for screening to detect cheese samples containing toxic amounts of histamine and for research studies designed to determine the cause and effect relationships for histamine production in cheese.     

Biogenic amines in fish, fish products and shellfish: a review

Fish, cephalopods and shellfish provide a healthy source of high-quality proteins, essential vitamins, minerals and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The beneficial effects of fish consumption on human health such as protection against coronary heart disease and certain cancer may be offset by fish decomposition and the formation of chemical contaminants such as biogenic amines. There are several toxicological effects of biogenic amines on humans, especially histamine. It is the causative agent of histamine or scombroid fish poisoning which is a significant public health problem. In individuals with diminished histamine detoxification, ingestion of even a low or moderate histamine- or tyramine-containing fish may lead to food intolerance. Biogenic amines such as putrescine, tyramine and cadaverine can potentiate histamine toxicity. Furthermore, dietary polyamine intake should be minimised in some cancer patients. Besides their potential toxicity, biogenic amines are used for the evaluation of hygienic quality of different marine and freshwater species. Spoilage pattern and biogenic amine formation are species specific. Histamine has been traditionally used as an indicator of the quality of histidine-rich fish (dark-muscle fish). On the other hand, putrescine and cadaverine are the most objective indicators of quality of histidine-poor fish (white-muscle fish), shellfish and fermented seafood products.     

Biogenic amines in fish,fish products and shellfish: a review

Fish, cephalopods and shellfish provide a healthy source of high-quality proteins, essential vitamins, minerals and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The beneficial effects of fish consumption on human health such as protection against coronary heart disease and certain cancer may be offset by fish decomposition and the formation of chemical contaminants such as biogenic amines. There are several toxicological effects of biogenic amines on humans, especially histamine. It is the causative agent of histamine or scombroid fish poisoning which is a significant public health problem. In individuals with diminished histamine detoxification, ingestion of even a low or moderate histamine- or tyramine-containing fish may lead to food intolerance. Biogenic amines such as putrescine, tyramine and cadaverine can potentiate histamine toxicity. Furthermore, dietary polyamine intake should be minimised in some cancer patients. Besides their potential toxicity, biogenic amines are used for the evaluation of hygienic quality of different marine and freshwater species. Spoilage pattern and biogenic amine formation are species specific. Histamine has been traditionally used as an indicator of the quality of histidine-rich fish (dark-muscle fish). On the other hand, putrescine and cadaverine are the most objective indicators of quality of histidine-poor fish (white-muscle fish), shellfish and fermented seafood products.     

水产品中组胺控制降解技术研究概述

组胺是鱼体中游离组氨酸,在组胺酸脱羧酶催化下,发生脱羧反应而形成的一种胺类.为了更好地让消费者、水产品生产者了解组胺,本文重点介绍了水产品中组胺的控制及降解技术,揭示了组胺控制的最新理论成果,为提高低值鱼类安全生产及精深加工产业整体技术水平产生积极的意义.     

The importance of endogenous histamine relative to dietary histamine in the aetiology of scombrotoxicosis.

Deliberately spoiled mackerel samples and mackerel samples implicated in outbreaks of scombrotoxicosis were, under medical supervision, tested blind on normal, healthy volunteers of both sexes. These experiments identified batches of fish which could induce nausea/vomiting and/or diarrhoea when 50 g samples were consumed. It was also established that the fillets in a batch were neither of equal potency nor homogeneous with respect to histamine content. Strong evidence was obtained that dietary histamine is not a major determinant of scombrotoxicosis since potency was not positively correlated with the dose, and volunteers appeared to fall into susceptible and non-susceptible subgroups. However, there is no reason to suspect allergy as being solely responsible for these differences in sensitivity. It is also possible to discount body weight as a factor. While the data suggest that females may be more susceptible than males, this effect cannot be confirmed at the present time. Studies with susceptible volunteers predosed with either placebo or H1 antagonist (chlorpheniramine 4 mg) demonstrated convincingly that the antihistamine can abolish vomiting and diarrhoea associated with the ingestion of 50 g of scombrotoxic fish. It is therefore postulated that endogenous histamine released by mast cell degranulation has a significant role in the aetiology of scombrotoxicosis, whereas the role of dietary histamine is minor. The nature and origin of the agent responsible for mast cell degranulation is being investigated.     

Occurrence of Histamine-Forming Bacteria in Albacore and Histamine Accumulation in Muscle at Ambient Temperature

Distribution of histamine‐producing bacteria in fresh albacore and their proliferation in muscle during storage at 25 °C were monitored. Histamine formers constituted a minor portion of the bacterial flora in albacore. Only weak histamine formers were detected in the gill and skin of fresh fish after enrichment. Histamine formers were isolated from the muscles when APC reached >10⁷ CFU/g during storage. Hafnia alvei was most prevalent in both fresh and temperature‐abused fish. The most prolific histamine former, Morganella morganii, was rarely isolated even from spoiled muscles. The prevalence of weak histamine formers resulted in low levels of histamine accumulation in muscle, 67.1 mg/100 g, for 6 d of storage.     

Histamine levels in seventeen species of fresh and processed South African seafood

Histamine levels were determined in fresh and processed seafood from a representative range of 10 outlets after several incidents of scombroid seafood poisoning occurred. Species included seventeen fresh and processed scombroid- and non-scombroid fish, marine mollusks and crustaceans. Histamine levels in fresh seafood were generally low (0–9 ppm) with the exception of one sample of snoek (scombroid fish; >50 ppm) and one sample of yellowtail (non-scombroid fish; >50 ppm). Both species are rich in free histidine (1.5–5.3 ppb), a precursor of histamine. Processed seafood had, in general, low histamine concentrations (0–3 ppm) with the exception of fish meal (76 ppm), salted herring (47 ppm), one sample of smoked snoek (>50 ppm) and dried tuna (8000 ppm). In total, 5 of 80 examined samples (6%) contained histamine concentrations above the legal limit of 50 ppm. Experimental formation of histamine was demonstrated to be strongly temperature- and time-dependent. Samples were not contaminated with Vibrio spp., Pseudomonas spp., Klebsiellas spp. or Enterobacteria.     

Control of Histamine‐Producing Bacteria and Histamine Formation in Fish Muscle by Trisodium Phosphate

Scombrotoxin fish poisoning remains the primary cause of seafood poisoning outbreaks despite preventive guidelines. The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of pH for the control of growth and histamine formation by histamine‐producing bacteria in fish muscle. We examined pH effects on growth and histamine formation in tuna fish infusion broth and in inoculated tuna and mahi‐mahi fish muscle. Histamine production was significantly less for all bacterial strains at pH 8.5 compared to pH 5.5 in tuna fish infusion broth with no significant difference in growth. Elevated pH due to phosphate treatment of fish muscle tissues significantly reduced histamine formation with no effect on the growth of histamine‐producing bacteria. This study revealed that phosphate treatment of mahi‐mahi and tuna fish muscle resulted in significantly lower histamine production over 4 d of storage at 10 °C. Phosphate treatment of fish muscle may serve as a secondary barrier in addition to FDA recommended time and temperature controls for reducing public health concerns of scombrotoxin fish poisoning.     

水产品中组胺产生机制及影响因素研究概述

组胺是鱼体中游离组氨酸,在组胺酸脱羧酶催化下,发生脱羧反应而形成的一种胺类。组胺通过与细胞膜上的两类受体(H1和H2)作用而发挥毒性。为了更好地让消费者、生产者了解组胺,本文重点阐述了水产品中组胺的产生机制及水产品中组按生成的影响因素,为从事水产品的生产者、经营者、消费者以及相关行业工作者提供理论基础。     

Histamine Formation in Fish Sauce Production

ABSTRACT: The formation of histamine in fish sauce made from Stolephorus sp was studied. In the first experiment, fish were iced on board and mixed with salt at the factory, while in the second experiment fish were mixed with salt on board collection vessels. Eight batches were fermented for 12 mo. Histamine levels increased during fermentation to 22 to 159 and 589 to 686 ppm in the first and second experiments respectively. Good correlation between histamine levels in raw material and final products was found. It was concluded that histamine was formed both in the raw material and during fermentation. It was speculated that histidine decarboxylase enzymes formed prior to fermentation produced histamine during fermentation.     

食品中产组胺微生物及其控制的研究进展

组胺是食品中游离组氨酸经组氨酸脱羧酶分解产生的一种胺类物质,也是一些出口水产食品中一项重要的质量检测指标。分析比较了国内外几类易产组胺食品中的产组胺微生物分布情况,并综述了组胺形成和控制方法的研究进展,由此可为食品中组胺的预防及控制提供基础,以确保食品的安全性。     

鱼类罐头相关食品标准法规中组胺指标探讨

目的探讨鱼类罐头相关食品标准法规中组胺指标,为GB 7098—2015《食品安全国家标准罐头食品》中鱼类罐头组胺指标修订提供基础数据。方法整理分析国内外法规情况、我国水产品及其制品组胺中毒情况,统计分析广东省市售高组胺鱼类罐头中组胺含量、广东省成人居民鱼类罐头消费量数据及组胺参考限量值。结果我国的鱼类罐头(仅适用于鲐鱼、鲹鱼、沙丁鱼罐头)组胺限量标准为1 000 mg/kg,高于国际组织和国外的组胺限量标准;1998—2018年我国水产品及其制品组胺中毒报道案例共18例,引起组胺中毒食物检测含量最低为120 mg/kg,最高为3 820 mg/kg;广东省主要鱼类罐头生产地区采集鱼类罐头样品136份,组胺含量范围为未检出(ND)～488.8 mg/kg,组胺含量超过200 mg/kg的占3.7%(5/136),超过400 mg/kg的占1.5%(2/136);基于广东省成人居民鱼类罐头高消费人群(P97.5)消费量为120 g/次和无作用剂量(NOAEL,50 mg)得出鱼类罐头组胺参考限量值为417 mg/kg。结论 GB 7098—2015鱼类罐头组胺指标限量值高,测定鱼品种少,建议我国开展高组胺鱼类罐头组胺风险评估,修订该标准鱼类罐头组胺指标。