Phenolic compounds in a Spanish red wine aged in barrels made of Spanish,French and American oak wood

A red Rioja wine was aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood for 21 months. The evolutions of colour percentage intensity, families of phenolic compounds and low molecular weight phenolic compounds were studied in these wines and compared with those of the same wine aged in barrels made of French and American oak. The analysis of chromatic parameters and total anthocyanins indicates that the wines aged in Spanish and French oak wood barrels have similar chromatic characteristics, but are significantly different to those of wines aged in barrels made of American oak wood, indicating a different degree of modification of the colour. The ageing process also had an important influence on the low molecular weight polyphenols composition of wine. The evolution of these components allowed the production of wines with different characteristics, in relation to the type of wood used in barrel making process. On the other hand, Spanish oak wood can be considered suitable for barrel production for quality wines, since a wine aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood showed similar and intermediate characteristics to those of the same wine aged in French and American oak woods.     

Binding of oak volatile compounds by wine lees during simulation of wine ageing

The retention of wine volatile compounds by wine lees could have an influence on the quality of the product. The aim of this work was to study the binding of wine volatile compounds from oak wood by the wine lees during simulation of wine ageing. The compounds with the most affinity for the lees were eugenol, 4-propylguaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, furfural and 5-methylfurfural. Lees also bound other compounds important for aroma in aged wine such as oak lactones, although to a lesser degree. Guaiacol and γ-nonalactone were the only compounds studied that were not bound by the lees. Because the lees bind important compounds to wine aroma, ageing red wine in oak barrel in presence of lees could diminish the impact of the aromatic compounds from oak wood on wine aroma.     

Effect of oak barrel type on the volatile composition of wine: Storage time optimization

When it comes to deciding about the length of time for ageing wine in barrels it is necessary to take into account several factors such as wine composition and characteristics of barrels. Adapting wood to wine is not an easy matter. Ageing duration is highly variable depending on a wine's origin, type and quality. The aim of this study is to investigate the behaviour of new barrels and once-used barrels depending on the ageing period of wine. From the results obtained it can be seen that for ageing wine during a short period (6-9 months), there was quite a big difference in the concentration of most of the oak wood compounds between wine aged in new barrels and wine aged in once-used barrels. However, due to the chemical or biochemical transformations of certain compounds from oak wood in wine over time, their concentration in long-term ageing (12-15 months) was similar for both wine aged in new barrels and in once-used barrels. The compounds which became more exhausted from barrel use were, furanic aldehydes, phenolic alcohols, phenolic aldehydes, and oak-lactones.     

橡木中的鞣花单宁对葡萄酒质量的影响

鞣花单宁是橡木中的主要单宁，是影响橡木桶贮葡萄酒质量的重要因素之一。影响葡萄酒中鞣花单宁含量的因素有橡木来源、橡木桶的制桶工艺、橡木中鞣花单宁的可浸提比例和橡木桶贮存过程中鞣花单宁的化学变化。鞣花单宁可引起葡萄酒的感官特性、质量、蒸馏酒风味和葡萄酒中多酚含量的变化。(孙悟)     

Statistical differentiation of wines of different geographic origin and aged in barrel according to some volatile components and ethylphenols

The purpose of this paper was to study the effect of wine composition and geographical origin on the accumulation of volatile compounds in barrel-aged wines. Therefore, 267 wines belonging to different origin appellations were analysed. In order to analyse the data, a multivariate statistical technique was applied, that can be quite useful in creating an overall view of the problem in which multiple variables are analysed. Statistical analysis gave four significant factors, accounting for 84.12% of the variance. These factors summarise the information of a group of variables closely correlated to each other. Factor 1 grouped together oak lactones and eugenol, so it was associated with oak barrel type and with toasting of barrels. Factor 2 was associated with ethylphenols, related to wine quality diminution. Factor 3 grouped together guaiacol, furfural, and 5-methylfurfural, and was thus associated with wood thermal degradation; factor 4 was associated with the cis/trans ratio, related to oak origin. Whereas geographical origin of wines affected the accumulation of volatile compounds, the cis/trans ratio was only affected by oak barrel type. Among the tested parameters, alcoholic degree was the enological parameter that had the greatest effect on the accumulation of volatile compounds in wines. Oak lactones were the compounds that were present in all wines, so they could be used as oak ageing indicators.     

橡木桶对葡萄酒品质的影响

橡木桶对葡萄酒的香气、色泽和稳定性有重要的作用。葡萄酒在橡木桶中经过氧化、浸渍等反应,可以有效改善葡萄酒品质。该文综述了橡木的种类、橡木桶的容量、橡木的烘烤程度对葡萄酒的品质的影响,并对生产中如何选择橡木桶提出合理建议。旨在进一步探究橡木桶在葡萄酒成熟中的作用。     

制桶工艺对橡木桶所含化学组分含量的影响

制桶的选材、风干、烘烤等工艺会改变橡木桶板材所含挥发性香气物质、酚类物质等化学组分的含量，从而影响橡木桶贮酒过程对葡萄酒质量的影响。研究表明，酿制橡木香较浓郁的葡萄酒选用美国白栎较好，酿造橡木香、果香、酒香协调的葡萄酒则选择欧洲橡木较适宜：板材风干过程对橡木板材中的总酚、单宁含量及挥发性香气物质香兰素和橡木内酯（MOL）的含量均有影响；烘烤强度可改变橡木木材原有的化学组分含量，使橡木桶具有不同的呈香特性和酚类物质含量。     

Advances in Wine Aging Technologies for Enhancing Wine Quality and Accelerating Wine Aging Process

Wine aging is an important process to produce high-quality wines. Traditionally, wines are aged in oak barrel aging systems. However, due to the disadvantages of the traditional aging technology, such as lengthy time needed, high cost, etc., innovative aging technologies have been developed. These technologies involve aging wines using wood fragments, application of micro-oxygenation, aging on lees, or application of some physical methods. Moreover, wine bottling can be regarded as the second phase of wine aging and is essential for most wines. Each technology can benefit the aging process from different aspects. Traditional oak barrel aging technology is the oldest and widely accepted technology. The application of wood fragments and physical methods are promising in accelerating aging process artificially, while application of micro-oxygenation and lees is reliable to improve wine quality. This paper reviews recent developments of the wine aging technologies. The impacts of operational parameters of each technology on wine quality during aging are analyzed, and comparisons among these aging technologies are made. In addition, several strategies to produce high-quality wines in a short aging period are also proposed.     

Oak barrel maturation vs. micro-oxygenation: Effect on the formation of anthocyanin-derived pigments and wine colour

The objective of this study was to check whether micro-oxygenation (MO) could mimic oak barrel ageing as regard the effect on wine colour. A red wine was submitted to micro-oxygenation for three months while another lot from the same wine was matured in oak barrels for three or six months. After these times, oak-matured and micro-oxygenated wines were bottled and analyzed six months later. The chromatic characteristics of these wines were also compared with those of a control wine that remained in a stainless steel tank all the time. Anthocyanins and anthocyanin-derived compounds were studied by LC–ESI-MS. Monomeric anthocyanins and other compounds including direct anthocyanin–flavanol adducts, ethyl-linked anthocyanin–flavanol compounds, and pyranoanthocyanins were detected. The application of MO for three months produced wines with a lower concentration of monomeric anthocyanins and a higher concentration of vitisin-related pigments than the control wine, the oak mature wines showing similar results than MO wines when aged for the same period of time. Differences were also observed in the chromatic characteristics, the micro-oxygenated and the oak matured wines showing a higher colour intensity than control wine. However, after six months in bottle differences were found between the micro-oxygenated wines and oak matured wines, the latter showing a more stable colour, probably due to the beneficial effects of compounds extracted from the wood (e.g. ellagitannins or wood aldehydes).     

橡木桶陈酿过程葡萄酒溶解氧的变化

研究干红葡萄酒在橡木桶中陈酿过程中溶解氧的变化。结果表明，新鲜酒入桶后，酒中的溶解氧逐渐减少，3个月后达到稳定值；在橡木桶中，距液面深度不同的葡萄酒中的溶解氧含量不同，愈深含量愈低，但溶解氧的变化趋势一致；在桶贮的初始3个月内，不同板材制作的橡木桶中酒的溶解氧含量有差异，3个月后趋于一致。     

Criteria to discriminate between wines aged in oak barrels and macerated with oak fragments

Wine aging in barrels is carried out to increase stability and achieve more complex aromas. In the last few years, however, the practice of macerating wine with small fragments of toasted oak (chips) has become increasingly common. This conveys similar tastes, aromas, and wooden notes to the wine as those obtained with traditional barrel aging, but much faster and at a fraction of the cost. Without proper regulation, this could lead to fraud if wine macerated with chips is offered as barrel aged wine.In the present study, 75 volatile compounds have been determined by applying gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (MS) and flame ionization detection (FID). It has been found that compounds directly related to the wood have greater discriminative power for telling apart wines aged in barrels from those macerated with oak fragments, but no single compound permits flawless classification. Therefore, we have studied the effect of the addition of oak fragments of different origins, different oak types, different formats and subjected to different toasting processes on a set of 231 samples from 6 Spanish Denominations of Origin wines (DOs), and compared them to those same wines aged in oak barrels. In light of the results, we have developed a set of criteria which allows distinguishing with high degree of accuracy between wines which have been aged in barrels and those macerated with oak fragments. The application of these criteria to different wines allows correct classification in over 90% of cases.     

橡木桶与红葡萄酒的桶贮管理

橡木桶是贮存红葡萄酒的容器，在贮酒过程中葡萄酒发生复杂的物理、化学变化，可提高红葡萄酒的品质。世界上橡木的种类大约为250种，应用最多的是欧洲橡木和美洲橡木。酿制橡木香气浓郁的葡萄酒，宜选用美国的白栎；酿造橡木香、果香、酒香协调幽雅的葡萄酒，则选用欧洲橡木或中国橡木。桶贮管理包括酒的管理、环境管理和橡木桶的管理。（孙悟）     

Astringency,bitterness and color changes in dry red wines before and during oak barrel aging: An updated phenolic perspective review

To understand effects of using oak barrels on the astringency, bitterness and color of dry red wines, phenolic reactions in wines before and after barrel aging are reviewed in this paper, which has been divided into three sections. The first section includes an introduction to chemical reactivities of grape-derived phenolic compounds, a summary of the phenolic reactions that occur in dry red wines before barrel aging, and a discussion of the effects of these reactions on wine astringency, bitterness and color. The second section introduces barrel types that determine the oak barrel constituents in wines (primarily oak aldehydes and ellagitannins) and presents reactions between the oak constituents and grape-derived phenolic compounds that may modulate wine astringency, bitterness and color. The final section illustrates the chemical differences between basic oxidation and over-oxidation in wines, discusses oxygen consumption kinetics in wines during barrel aging by comparing different oxygen consumption kinetics observed previously by others, and speculates on the possible preliminary phenolic reactions that occur in dry red wines during oak barrel aging that soften tannins and stabilize pigments via basic oxidation. Additionally, sulfur dioxide (SO₂) addition during barrel aging and suitability of adopting oak barrels for aging wines are briefly discussed.     

葡萄酒陈酿新技术研究进展

葡萄酒作为全世界最受欢迎的饮品之一,其感官特性（如气味、口感和颜色）在很大程度上取决于所使用的陈酿技术。橡木桶是陈酿红葡萄酒常用的容器,但是用橡木桶陈酿周期较长,人力、物力消耗大,且产量也有限,所以亟待寻求替代橡木桶的陈酿方法。作者探究了橡木桶陈酿葡萄酒的原理,并比较了不同葡萄酒陈酿新方法的原理、优劣及可行性,同时,结合我国国情对未来寻求新材料替代橡木桶的可行性进行了展望,为新兴技术与葡萄酒行业的结合提供理论支持。     

橡木桶陈酿对红葡萄酒抗氧化性的影响

采用2,2'-联氮-双-3-乙基苯并噻唑啉-6-磺酸（ABTS）方法动态监测经橡木桶陈酿和未经橡木桶陈酿的红葡萄酒的反应过程,比较在测定其抗氧化活性的反应条件上的差异,从而确定适合检测的最佳反应条件,并分析橡木桶陈酿对红葡萄酒中酚类物质含量和抗氧化活性的影响。结果表明,ABTS方法测定经橡木桶陈酿的红葡萄酒抗氧化活性的最佳反应时间范围是240～280 min,最佳稀释比例范围为1∶100～2∶100,未经橡木桶陈酿的最佳反应时间范围是220～260 min,最佳稀释比例范围是3∶100～4∶100,此条件下各因素与自由基清除率的线性关系R2均＞0.999。试验证明,采用合适的检测方法测定不同陈酿方式酒的抗氧化活性有利于提高检测效率和准确性,经橡木桶陈酿过的红葡萄酒中的酚类物质含量和抗氧化活性更高。     

添加葡萄籽单宁对橡木桶陈酿‘赤霞珠’和‘马瑟兰’干红葡萄酒香气的影响

采用气相色谱-质谱联用法和感官分析排序法,研究橡木桶陈酿前添加葡萄籽单宁（200 mg/L）对陈酿12 个月后‘赤霞珠’和‘马瑟兰’干红葡萄酒香气组分和感官特征的影响。结果表明：添加葡萄籽单宁对2 个品种葡萄酒香气的影响各异。葡萄籽单宁添加促进了橡木桶陈酿期间‘赤霞珠’葡萄酒中香草酸、香草醛、香草酸乙酯、糠醛、乙酰呋喃和糠醇等橡木来源香气物质的浸出,而抑制‘马瑟兰’干红葡萄酒中糠醛、乙酰呋喃、糠醇、5-甲基糠醛和5-羟甲基糠醛等橡木来源香气物质的浸出。添加葡萄籽单宁后,‘赤霞珠’葡萄酒的生青味和浆果香降低,烘烤味增强,‘马瑟兰’葡萄酒的生青味和花香略有增强,对陈酿型干红葡萄酒的生产具有重要指导作用。     

Influence of different aging systems and oak woods on aged wine color and anthocyanin composition

The evolution of a red wine, Cigales appellation in origin, was studied during its storage in three different aging systems (barrels, chips, and staves) made of different kinds of oak wood (American, French, and Hungarian). The results obtained were analyzed in order to determine the content of anthocyanins in wine according to the aging system used. The studied variables were monoglucosides of delphidin, cyanindin, peonidin, petunidin and malvidin (as acetic and p-coumaric esters), as well as vitisin A, malvidin-3-O-caffeylglucoside, and color variables. The relationship between the anthocyanins and color variables stressed the importance of these compounds during the formation of pigments characteristic of aged wine, and highlighted how they are affected by the aging system chosen.Analysis of the results allowed us to define the evolution of the wine accordingly to the aging system and the botanical species of wood used. Wine treated with chips evolved more quickly than wines treated with the other two systems, because there was a higher loss of anthocyanins and an increase in brownish tonalities. On the other hand, wine treated with Hungarian oak wood suffered a slightly higher loss of anthocyanins than those aged with French and American oak wood.     

橡木桶与葡萄酒陈酿

桶木桶用于葡萄酒陈酿，存在于木桶中的挥发酚、呋喃醛、橡木内酯、萜类、单宁等由于溶解、浸渍等作用而进入到葡萄酒中，增加了酒的风味复杂性；并可防止因带菌皮而引起酒的过分还原，还可增强酒的品种香气。