Risk‐Benefit Analysis of Seafood Consumption: A Review

Abstract: Seafood, defined here as marine and freshwater fish and shellfish, is recognized as a healthy food choice because it is a low‐fat protein source that provides long‐chain omega‐3 fatty acids important for early development along with eye and heart health. However, seafood is also known to contain certain contaminants, such as methylmercury and persistent organic pollutants, which can have harmful effects on human health and development. In order to limit exposure to contaminants while maximizing the benefits of seafood consumption, a number of quantitative and qualitative risk‐benefit analyses have been conducted for seafood consumption. This review paper provides a brief background on risk‐benefit analysis of foods, followed by a discussion of the risks and benefits associated with fish consumption. Next, risk‐benefit analyses are reviewed in an historical context. While risk‐benefit analysis consists of three main elements (that is, assessment, management, and communication), this review will primarily focus on risk‐benefit assessments. Overall, most studies have found that the benefits far outweigh the risks among the general population, especially when a variety of fish is consumed at least twice per week. However, for certain populations (for example, pregnant women and young children) a more targeted approach is warranted in order to ensure that these groups consume fish that are low in contaminants but high in omega‐3 fatty acids. The potentially harmful unintended consequences of risk‐benefit communication on the general population and certain groups are also discussed.     

Risk assessment used to evaluate the US position on Listeria monocytogenes in seafood

Human listeriosis has been associated with consumption of food including seafood. Surveillance information on the presence of Listeria monocytogenes in seafood products is presented as a background for steps that are being taken to inform risk managers of risks associated with particular food products. United States policy for L. monocytogenes in food has been shaped by our increasing knowledge of the epidemiology of outbreaks and sporadic cases of human listeriosis, the potentially severe public health consequences, and the characteristics of the organism. A quantitative risk assessment of the scientific knowledge we have about the organism and the epidemiology of listeriosis should be the basis for changes in this policy. Risk assessment uses quantitative scientific and epidemiological information in a structured format to determine the risks associated with particular hazards. A quantitative risk assessment is being performed using currently available data by the US Food and Drug Administration, in collaboration with the US Food Safety and Inspection Service, to determine the risk of listeriosis from various foods, including seafood, for specific intervention methods, and for general and at-risk population groups. The questions being considered include those on level of consumption, epidemiology, dose response, and the virulence, biology, and ecology of the organism. Risk managers can use the resulting information to form a defendable science-based policy on L. monocytogenes in food.     

Mercury,lead, arsenic,and cadmium in Norwegian seafood products and consumer exposure

ABSTRACT

Seafood can be a source of contaminants, which may raise health concerns. The aim of this study was to analyse the levels of inorganic contaminants in commercially available seafood products and assess consumer exposure. Commercially available samples were collected from 2015–2018 and analysed as composite samples for mercury, lead, arsenic, and cadmium, using accredited methods. Levels of cadmium, lead, and arsenic were low and human exposure of these metals would be minimal from consumption of the analysed seafood products. Mercury levels were well below the EU maximum limit for mercury in fish. However, children, who are high consumers, might be at risk of exceeding the tolerable weekly intake for methyl mercury, when eating products with the highest mercury levels. The collected data can be used for future risk-benefit assessments as intake of processed seafood products represent a large proportion of the populations' seafood intake in Europe.     

Incidence and role of Salmonella in seafood safety

Seafood products are appreciated worldwide for their high nutritional value and are increasingly popular among consumers. Consumer preferences range from fresh products, eaten raw or minimally processed, to variously prepared (salted, smoked, cured, canned) and ready-to-eat (RTE) products. Moreover, seafood products are a major food category in international trade and are frequently shipped very long distances. All these factors expose seafood to various contaminants, including those of microbiological origins, such as Salmonella. The presence of Salmonella in seafood may derive from contamination occurring in the natural aquatic environment, in aquaculture or during processing. In addition, the isolation of Salmonella serovars that are resistant and multiresistant to antibiotics continues to raise concerns. In this review various aspects associated with the microbiological risk posed by the presence of Salmonella in seafood are examined. The most recent data of incidence are presented, and some prevention and control strategies are considered.     

海产品中砷形态分析研究进展

我国是海产品的生产和消费大国,所以海产品的安全问题受到人们越来越多的关注。海产品特别是食用海藻含砷量较高,但是海产品中的砷大部分以低毒性的有机砷形态存在,而且不同种类的海产品所含有的砷形态各不相同。所以,对海产品中的不同形态砷化合物进行精准分析检测,对于科学、客观评估海产品中砷污染的健康风险以及保证海产品的安全消费具有重要意义。海产品的砷形态分析面临的困难主要是,第一在不改变砷形态的前提下把海产品中所有形态砷化合物完全提取出来;第二把各形态有机砷和无机砷在较短时间内实现基线分离、并对各形态砷化合物进行高灵敏检测。近十多年来,有关海产品中砷的形态分析得到越来越多的关注,在方法学上也取得了显著的进步。本文主要针对近十多年来有关不同海产品中不同形态砷化合物的提取方法和分析检测方法方面的研究进展进行了概述,以期为食品检测机构或食品安全研究或评估人员提供方法学上的参考。     

Contamination of food samples from Malaysia with polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans and estimation of human intake

A total of 126 food samples, categorised into three groups (seafood and seafood products, meat and meat products, as well as milk and dairy products) from Malaysia were analysed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs). The concentration of PCDD/Fs that ranged from 0.16 to 0.25 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ g^?1 fw was found in these samples. According to the food consumption data from the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) of the World Health Organization (WHO), the dietary exposures to PCDD/F from seafood and seafood products, meat and meat products, as well as milk and dairy products for the general population in Malaysia were 0.064, 0.183 and 0.736 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. However, the exposure was higher in seafood and seafood products (0.415 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1) and meat and meat products (0.317 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1) when the data were estimated using the Malaysian food consumption statistics. The lower exposure was observed in dairy products with an estimation of 0.365 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1. Overall, these dietary exposure estimates were much lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) as recommended by WHO. Thus, it is suggested that the dietary exposure to PCDD/F does not represent a risk for human health in Malaysia.     

SEAFOODplus – how to provide health promoting, safe seafood of high eating quality to consumers

The strategic objective of the SEAFOODplus Integrated Project is to reduce health problems and to increase well-being among European consumers by applying the benefits obtained through consumption of health promoting and safe seafood products of high eating quality. The relevance of seafood in the diet to diminish the increased incidences of e.g. cardiovascular, cancer and inflammatory diseases is being assessed by performing dietary intervention and epidemiological studies. Other focus areas are health of young populations, to treat overweight, to prevent osteoporosis and postpartum depression observed for women giving birth. Seafood’s importance for consumer behaviour and well-being is assessed to understand determinants of consumers’ seafood consumption and to adapt seafood products to consumer demands. The objectives of the seafood safety component are to make seafood safe for the consumer, by identifying risk factors and avoiding risks caused by viral and bacterial contamination and biogenic amines in seafood. The total value chain is addressed by developing consumer driven tailor-made, functional seafood products to improve health and to ensure nutritional quality and safety by full utilisation of raw materials from aquaculture and from traditional fisheries. The aquaculture component will study the effects of dietary modulation, husbandry, fish physiology, genetics and pre-slaughter conditions. Validated traceability systems are assessed to make it possible to apply a total chain approach from the live fish to the consumer product, and to trace back any feature from fork to farm. Received: January 7, 2008; accepted January 8, 2008     

Toxic elements in eggs and egg-based products: occurrence,exposure assessment and risk characterisation for the Serbian population

This study aimed to assess the exposure of the Serbian adult population to As, Cd, Pb and Hg through the consumption of eggs and egg-based products and to assess health risks. Coccidiostat residues were also examined, and their contribution to acceptable daily intake was calculated. Egg samples were collected from 2018 to 2020. The consumption survey was conducted during 2020. A Monte Carlo simulation was performed to estimate the intake of toxic elements based on one-day and seven-day recalls of egg consumption. The results obtained showed that the adult population in Serbia is not exposed to health risks from the studied toxic elements when consuming eggs and egg-based products. The presence of anticoccidial agents was detected in 22% of egg samples at concentrations above the limits prescribed by current regulations in Serbia (which do not allow detectable levels of coccidiostats in eggs), with the main risk of exposure being to coccidiostat residues associated with maduramycin.     

Determinants of seafood consumption in Norway: lifestyle,revealed preferences,and barriers to consumption

Little research attention has previously been paid to understand the complementary relationship between the consumption of seafood and variation in lifestyle factors. The present paper seeks to address this question by hypothesizing that the consumption of seafood is strongly influenced both by the variation in lifestyle factors and consumer's experience with available products in the market. Understanding the main lifestyle factors influencing consumption behaviour and seafood demand is important for marketers who want to increase the product values both for the consumers and themselves. A recursive sequential model of the decision-making process is used to evaluate the effect of socio-demographic variables, consumption of other dinner dishes, other lifestyle variables, and attitudes towards seafood on consumption amongst women of three major seafood categories at-home. The most important finding which can be influenced through the marketing process is that product attributes more than beliefs concerning price are important perceived barriers for consumption. The presence of school-aged kids in the household and regional residence influences what kind of seafood is consumed, while total consumption increases with increasing size of the household, increasing age and higher education. This indicates that there is a potential for suppliers to increase the sales value through marketing of high quality products which satisfy experienced and higher educated consumers, while families with kids should be satisfied through marketing of value-added product forms.     

食品中副溶血性弧菌的危害分析、检测与预防控制

副溶血性弧菌是一种广泛分布于近岸海水、海底沉积物和海产品中的嗜盐性细菌，也是引起我国特别是沿海地区细菌性食物中毒危害的首要食源性致病菌。为了提高人们对副溶血性弧菌的重视程度，降低食源性疾病的风险，本文就副溶血性弧菌的生物特性、毒力因子、污染途径、食物中毒特点、检测方法以及预防措施作简要综述。     

Vibrio parahaemolyticus: a concern of seafood safety

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a human pathogen that is widely distributed in the marine environments. This organism is frequently isolated from a variety of raw seafoods, particularly shellfish. Consumption of raw or undercooked seafood contaminated with V. parahaemolyticus may lead to development of acute gastroenteritis characterized by diarrhea, headache, vomiting, nausea, and abdominal cramps. This pathogen is a common cause of foodborne illnesses in many Asian countries, including China, Japan and Taiwan, and is recognized as the leading cause of human gastroenteritis associated with seafood consumption in the United States. This review gives an overview of V. parahaemolyticus food poisoning and provides information on recent development in methods for detecting V. parahaemolyticus and strategies for reducing risk of V. parahaemolyticus infections associated with seafood consumption.     

水产品风险分析的研究进展

我国水产品资源丰富,既是水产品生产大国,又是水产品出口大国。水产品的质量不仅直接影响消费者的食用安全,而且对国际贸易也产生重要的影响。目前,风险分析是保证食品安全的一种新模式,一些国际组织和发达国家已经就特定水产品的危害因素展开了风险分析。本文主要论述水产品安全危害因素及风险分析,介绍一些国内外水产品风险分析的案例。     

Recalls of foods and cosmetics due to microbial contamination reported to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration

In the U.S., food product recalls serve as an important intervention in stemming the consumption of food products contaminated with infectious disease agents. We summarize the number and nature of foods and cosmetics recalled as a result of microbial contamination reported to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the period 1 October 1993 through 30 September 1998. During this period, microbial contamination of food and cosmetic products was the leading cause for recalls, accounting for a total of 1,370 recalls (36% of all products recalled). Listeria monocytogenes accounted for the greatest number of food products recalled because of microbial contamination, whereas Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most common microbe associated with recalls of cosmetic products. Dairy products, followed by seafood and pastry items, were the types of products most often associated with recalls due to microbial contamination. The FDA was the entity most often responsible for detecting microbial contamination of foods and cosmetics (33% of all such recalls), followed by state regulatory agencies (24%), and manufacturers/retailers (21%). Nineteen percent of recalls were associated with at least one reported case of illness. Salmonella was the pathogen most often implicated in reports of illness associated with these recalled products.     

Nutrients and Chemical Pollutants in Fish and Shellfish. Balancing Health Benefits and Risks of Regular Fish Consumption

Dietary patterns and lifestyle factors are clearly associated with at least five of the ten leading causes of death, including coronary heart disease, certain types of cancer, stroke, non-insulin insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, and atherosclerosis. Concerning specifically fish and seafood consumption, its beneficial health effects in humans are clearly supported by an important number of studies performed in the last 30 years. These studies have repeatedly linked fish consumption, especially those species whose contents in omega-3 fatty acids are high, with healthier hearts in the aging population. The nutritional benefits of fish and seafood are also due to the content of high-quality protein, vitamins, as well as other essential nutrients. However, a number of studies, particularly investigations performed in recent years, have shown that the unavoidable presence of environmental contaminants in fish and shellfish can also mean a certain risk for the health of some consumers. While prestigious international associations as the American Heart Association have recommended eating fish at least two times (two servings a week), based on our own experimental results, as well as in results from other laboratories, we cannot be in total agreement with that recommendation. Although a regular consumption of most fish and shellfish species should not mean adverse health effects for the consumers, the specific fish and shellfish species consumed, the frequency of consumption, as well as the meal size, are essential issues for adequately balancing the health benefits and risks of regular fish consumption.     

鱼产品掺假鉴别技术研究进展

由于水产品种类多、消费量大,近缘关系之间的物种品质和价格差距悬殊,导致水产品掺假以及错贴标签等欺诈现象层出不穷,损害了消费者的利益甚至健康。传统的感官识别方法具有一定的局限性,因此需要建立快速、准确的水产品鉴别方法。本文总结了常见的几类易掺假的鱼肉及鱼产品,并综述了水产品掺假鉴别技术。掺假鉴别技术主要分为无损检测技术、蛋白质分析技术和核酸分析技术三大类,包括光谱、质谱、酶联免疫吸附测定和聚合酶链式反应等。本文概括了水产品掺假鉴别技术的应用与特点,深入探讨了其发展趋势,期望为水产品掺假鉴别提供技术参考。     

Dietary exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs of Hong Kong adults: results of the first Hong Kong Total Diet Study

Dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) covered by the Stockholm Convention on POPs. To assess the associated health risk of the Hong Kong population, the dietary exposure of the Hong Kong population and various age–gender subgroups to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs was estimated in the first Hong Kong Total Diet Study (TDS), where food samples were collected and prepared “as consumed”. A total of 142 composite food samples, mainly foods of animal origin and their products and oily food, were analysed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and dioxin-like PCBs by the high-resolution gas chromatograph/high-resolution mass spectrometer (HRGC/HRMS) system. Dietary exposures were estimated by combining the analytical results with the food consumption data of Hong Kong adults. The mean and 95th percentile exposures to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs of the Hong Kong population were 21.9 and 59.7 pg toxic equivalent (TEQ) kg^?1 body weight (bw) month^?1 respectively, which amounted to 31.3% and 85.2% of the provisional tolerable monthly intake (PTMI). The main dietary source of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs was “Fish and seafood and their products” (61.9% of the total exposure), followed by “Meat, poultry and game and their products” (20.0%) and “Mixed dishes” (6.95%). The study findings suggest that the Hong Kong population is unlikely to experience the major undesirable health effects of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs.     

Assessment of seasonality in exposure to dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs by using long-term food-consumption data

According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) guidance related to uncertainties in dietary exposure assessment, exposure assessment based on short-term food-consumption surveys, such as 24-h recalls or 2-day records, tend to overestimate long-term exposure because of the assumption that the dietary pattern will be similar day after day over a lifetime. The aim of this study was to make an assessment of dietary exposure to polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), also called 'dioxins' and 'dioxin-like PCBs', using long-term household purchase and consumption survey data collected by TNS-Secodip. Weekly purchases of the major dioxins and dl-PCB vector products of these contaminants were collected for 328 single-person households, who participated at TNS-Secodip consumption surveys from 2003 to 2005 and who were single-person households in order to estimate better their consumption. These data were combined with average contamination levels of food products. Weekly gross average exposure was estimated at 10.2 pg toxic equivalent (WHO TEQ) kg(-1) bw week(-1) (95% confidence interval [9.6, 10.9]). According to the typical shape of the distribution of individual weekly exposures, it is sensible to fit an exponential law to these data. The mean was therefore 12.1 pg WHO TEQ kg(-1) bw week(-1). This value is higher than the arithmetic mean because it better takes into account inter-individual variability. It was estimated that about 20% of persons in this sample were exceeding the current health-based guidance value mainly due to high consumption of seafood and/or dairy products. Thanks to long survey duration (3 years) and the weekly recording of food consumption, it was possible to demonstrate the actual seasonality of dietary exposure to dioxins and dl-PCBs with a maximum between March and September; similar seasonality is observable for fish consumption. Autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models were adjusted to the time series and it was demonstrated that the number of times the upper limit of confidence intervals exceeds the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) is about 15 weeks per year on average. Finally, compared with the results obtained from data collected in the short-term surveys (1 week), this study does not suggest that short-term consumption surveys tend to overestimate the long-term exposure.     

水产品过敏原的研究现状和展望

水产品作为人类食物的重要来源之一,其市场和消费群体不断扩大。与此同时,由水产品引发的食物过敏也日益增多,在联合国粮农组织公布的八大类过敏食物中,水产品就占了两大类。水产品过敏原有小清蛋白(Parvalbumin)、鱼卵蛋白(如鲑鱼的硫酸鱼精蛋白)和胶原蛋白(Collagen)、原肌球蛋白(Tropomyosin,TM)、精氨酸激酶(Arginine kinase)、肌球蛋白轻链(Myosin light chain)、肌钙结合蛋白(Sarcoplasmic calcium binding pro-tein)、血蓝蛋白亚基(Hemocyanin subunits)等。基于此,本文重点概述了国内外水产品过敏原及其加工脱敏技术的研究现状,以及今后水产品过敏原研究的发展趋势。     

Seafood safety: Knowledge,attitudes, self-reported practices and risk perceptions of seafood workers

The aims of this study were to assess the knowledge, attitudes and self-reported practices regarding seafood safety and the risk perception of seafood-borne diseases among seafood workers and to study the relationships among these variables. This study was cross-sectional, and the data collection was conducted using questionnaires administered through face-to-face interviews with 193 seafood workers in Brazil. Of these workers, 49.8% handled fish on fishery boats (Fishery Workers, FWs) and 50.2% were seafood handlers in two seafood warehouses (Seafood Warehouse Workers, SWWs). A minority of the seafood workers (33.7%) had participated in at least one food-safety training session. The knowledge and attitudes scores of the SWWs were higher than the scores of the FWs. However, no difference was observed between the self-reported practice scores of the SWWs and FWs. The mean level of risk perception score of the SWWs was higher than that of the FWs; nevertheless, both groups were classified as having an average risk perception of seafood-borne diseases. The risk perception score was correlated with the knowledge and attitude scores in both groups. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that the attitude score and the age of the worker were related to the self-reported practice scores of both groups. These results showed the need for immediate actions to improve the knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding food safety and handling to ensure the production of seafood that is safe for consumption.     

Veterinary drug residues in seafood inspected by the European Union, United States, Canada, and Japan from 2000 to 2009

Veterinary drugs are used to treat or prevent a wide array of production-related diseases in aquaculture. Residues of these drugs in seafood products may pose risks to consumers, prompting governments to set drug residue tolerance levels and inspect seafood for violations of these standards. This study characterizes veterinary drug inspection policies and violations among four inspecting bodies (European Union (E.U.), United States (U.S.), Canada, and Japan), using government-collected veterinary drug violation data from 2000 to 2009. Most veterinary drug violations were detected in species that are commonly farm-raised. Asian seafood products, including shrimp and prawns, catfish (or fish sold as catfish), crab, tilapia, eel, and Chilean salmon were most frequently in violation of veterinary drug residue standards. Vietnam had the greatest number of violations among exporting countries. Concentrations of most veterinary drugs in seafood found in violation did not differ between inspecting bodies that reported drug concentrations. Transparency in seafood inspection reporting varied widely among inspecting bodies. Estimation of violations in the untested fraction of seafood was precluded by a lack of information from inspecting bodies regarding the distinction between targeted and random sampling. Increased transparency could facilitate a more rigorous characterization of public health risks from consuming imported seafood.