Exposure assessment of the Belgian population to pesticide residues through fruit and vegetable consumption

Exposure of the Belgian consumer to pesticide residues from the consumption of fruit and vegetables was determined based on data collected in the Belgian food consumption survey performed by the Scientific Institute for Public Health and data from the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain 2005 monitoring programme. A first screening of pesticide residue exposure was performed by a deterministic approach. For most pesticide residues studied, the exposure was 100 times lower than the acceptable daily intake (ADI). However, for a high consumer (97.5th percentile of consumption) the intake could reach 23% of the ADI for imazalil, 15% for chlorpropham, 14% for the dithiocarbamates, 10% for dimethoate and lambda-cyhalothrin, and 9% for chlorpyriphos. Nevertheless, probabilistic exposure assessment performed on these pesticides in a second phase of the study indicated that, except for chlorpropham, the probability to exceed the ADI is much lower than 0.1%.     

Dietary exposure of the Belgian population to emulsifiers E481 (sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate) and E482 (calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate)

A dietary exposure assessment of food emulsifiers E481 (sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate) and E482 (calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate) in the Belgian population was performed. Nationally representative food consumption data from the Belgian National Food Consumption Surveys 2004 (BNFCS2004) and 2014 (BNFCS2014) were used for calculations. A conservative approach (combining individual food consumption data with the maximum permitted level (MPL) of foods (tier 2), was compared with more refined estimates (combining individual food consumption data with actual concentrations measured in food products available on the Belgian market (tier 3)). Estimated daily intakes were compared to the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of the stearoyl-2-lactylates. The results of tier 2 demonstrated that 92% of the children (3–9 years), 53% of the adolescents (10–17 years), 15% of the adults (18–64 years) and 26% of the elderly (64–98 years) had a potential intake higher than the ADI. When replacing the MPL with maximum analysed concentration levels in foods, daily intake estimates decreased dramatically. The estimated daily intake of the food emulsifiers was below the ADI for all age groups, except for a small percentage of children (1.9%) for which the intake exceeded the ADI. The main contributors to the exposure of E481 and E482 were bread, rolls and fine bakery wares.     

食品中农药残留的膳食暴露与累积性暴露评估研究

农药残留超标是消费者比较关心的问题,关系到消费者身体健康与国际贸易.开展农药残留的膳食暴露评估对我国的食品质量安全控制有重要意义.本文就最大残留限量和日允许摄入量的关系,农药残留膳食暴露评估的模式和累积性暴露评估进行了阐述,并对我国农药残留的膳食暴露评估提出几点建议.     

Impact of food consumption habits on the pesticide dietary intake: Comparison between a French vegetarian and the general population

This study aims to compare the pesticide residue dietary intake of the French general population and the vegetarian population, separated into five specific diets: omnivorous (OMN), lacto-vegetarian (LV), ovo-lacto-vegetarian (OLV), pesco-lacto-vegetarian (PLV) and vegan (VG). Theoretical Maximum Daily Intakes (TMDIs) based on Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) were calculated as a percentage of the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). Among the 421 pesticides studied, only 48 had TMDI above ADI for at least one population subgroup. An excessive exposure was noticed for 44, 43, 42, 41 and 30 pesticides in the OLV, VG, OMN, LV and PLV groups, respectively, versus 29 in the general population. Meat and egg products consumption was responsible for higher intakes of organochlorine pesticides in the general population than in the vegetarian population (TMDI = 348% versus 146–183% ADI for aldrin). However, as the limited consumption of animal-origin commodities was largely offset by a higher fruit, vegetable and cereal intake in the vegetarian diets, vegetarians appear to be preferentially exposed to pesticides, for which fruit, vegetables and cereals are the main contributors, such as tri-allate, chlorpyrifos-methyl and diazinon. This study illustrates that consumption habits have a real impact on pesticide exposure in terms of intake levels, number and type of pesticides, representing a potential risk of dietary exposure. Except for organochlorine compounds, the vegetarian population may be more exposed to pesticide residues than the general population due to specific dietary habits. Thus, this population should be considered for risk assessment of pesticide residues.     

Estimate of intake of sulfites in the Belgian adult population

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate the usual daily intake of sulfites in the Belgian adult population. Food consumption data were retrieved from the national food consumption survey. In a first step, individual food consumption data were multiplied with the maximum permitted use levels for sulfites, expressed as sulphur dioxide, per food group (Tier 2). In a second step, on the basis of a literature review of the occurrence of sulfites in different foods, the results of the Tier 2 exposure assessment and available occurrence data from the control programme of the competent authority, a refined list of foods was drafted for the quantification of sulphite. Quantification of sulphite was performed by a high-performance ion chromatography method with eluent conductivity detector in beers and potato products. Individual food consumption data were then multiplied with the actual average concentrations of sulfite per food group, or the maximum permitted levels in case actual levels were not available (partial Tier 3). Usual intakes were calculated using the Nusser method. The mean intake of sulfites was 0.34 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 (Tier 2), corresponding to 49% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) and 0.19 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1, corresponding to 27% of the ADI (partial Tier 3). The food group contributing most to the intake of sulfites was wines. The results showed that the intake of sulfites is likely to be below the ADI in Belgium. However, there are indications that high consumers of wine have an intake around the ADI.     

Cumulative risk assessment of the intake of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides in the Danish diet

The aim of the study is to evaluate the potential cumulative effects of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides that act through a common mechanism of toxicity, and to assess the long- and short-term risks for the Danish population. The intake estimates are based on dietary intake data collected in the Danish nation-wide food consumption survey in 1995. The pesticide data are based on the Danish pesticide residue-monitoring programme from 1996-2001. The amount of 35 organophosphorus pesticides and carbamates were included in the cumulative risk assessment. Processing factors, such as reduction of pesticide levels by rinsing and peeling, were applied in the exposure assessment. The "Toxicity Equivalence Factor" (TEF) approach was used to normalise the toxicity of the different organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides. Cumulative chronic exposure of organophosphorus and carbamates pesticides via fruit, vegetables and cereals is for adults 0.8-2% of the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) in chlorpyrifos equivalents, and 0.03-11% of the ADI in methamidophos equivalents; and for children 2-5% of the ADI in the chlorpyrifos equivalents, and 0.07-27% of the ADI in methamidophos equivalents. Neither Acute Reference Dose (ARfD) nor ADI was exceeded for any of the compounds studied. The results indicate that the Danish population is neither exposed to any cumulative chronic risk, nor at risk of acute exposure, from consumption of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides from fruit, vegetables and cereals.     

Chronic dietary risk for pesticide residues in food in Brazil: an update.

The objective was to conduct a dietary risk assessment of pesticides registered in Brazil up to 14 January 2004. The theoretical maximum daily intake (TMDI) was calculated for 275 compounds using the Brazilian maximum residue limits (MRL) and food consumption. The chronic dietary risk assessment was conducted by comparing the TMDI with the Brazilian acceptable daily intake (ADI) or, when not available, with the ADI from other sources. The TMDI was higher than the ADI (%ADI>100) in at least one Brazilian region for eight pesticides, including five organophosphorus insecticides. For these compounds, the higher TMDI (expressed as %ADI) ranged from 140 (metam sodium) to 14,000 (methyl bromide). Rice, beans, citrus and tomato were the commodities that contributed most to ingestion. Change in pesticide use patterns and the establishment of ADIs by the Brazilian government have reduced the number of compounds for which the TMDI exceeded the ADI in the last 4 years. Risk assessment methodology based on TMDI calculation, however, is conservative as it assumes that the food supply is always treated with all the registered pesticides for that crop and that one always consumes food containing residues at the tolerance level. Furthermore, for six compounds with TMDI exceeding the ADI, a more realistic estimation of the pesticide daily intake was conducted using monitoring residue data from the Brazilian National Pesticide Residue Program. For these compounds, the higher refined intakes ranged from 2% (dimethoate) to 180% (fenitrothion) of the ADIs. The implementation of a national pesticide residue monitoring programme by the government was important to allow the refinement of the risk assessment. However, adequate daily food consumption data are still needed to assess better the public health risk to Brazilian consumers from food produced from crops treated with pesticides.     

Average daily nitrate and nitrite intake in the Belgian population older than 15 years

The aim of this study was to assess the dietary intake of nitrate and nitrite in Belgium. The nitrate content of processed vegetables, cheeses and meat products was analysed. These data were completed by data from non-targeted official control and from the literature. In addition, the nitrite content of meat products was measured. Concentration data for nitrate and nitrite were linked to food consumption data of the Belgian Food Consumption Survey. This study included 3245 respondents, aged 15 years and older. Food intakes were estimated by a repeated 24-h recall using EPIC-SOFT. Only respondents with two completed 24-h recalls (n=3083) were included in the analysis. For the intake assessment, average concentration data and individual consumption data were combined. Usual intake of nitrate/nitrite was calculated using the Nusser method. The mean usual daily intake of nitrate was 1.38 mg kg(-1) bodyweight (bw) day(-1) and the usual daily intake at the 97.5 percentile was 2.76 mg kg(-1) bw day(-1). Exposure of the Belgian population to nitrate at a mean intake corresponded to 38% of the ADI (while 76% at the 97.5 percentile). For the average consumer, half of the intake was derived from vegetables (especially lettuce) and 20% from water and water-based drinks. The average daily intake of nitrate and nitrite from cheese and meat products was low (0.2% and 6% of the ADI at average intake, respectively). Scenario analyses with a higher consumption of vegetables or a higher nitrate concentration in tap water showed a significant higher intake of nitrate. Whether this is beneficial or harmful must be further assessed.     

叶菜类蔬菜中农药残留及膳食暴露风险评估

摘要： 目的 了解石家庄市叶菜类蔬菜农药残留现状,并评估农药残留的膳食暴露风险。方法 随机采集主要叶菜类样品682批,采用NY/T761-2008方法检测65种农药残留,分析叶菜类蔬菜农药残留现状,并结合我国居民蔬菜消费情况,用%ADI和%ARfD分别对农药残留进行慢性和急性膳食摄入暴露评估。结果 叶菜类蔬菜合格率98.97%,蔬菜检出率6.74%,农药检出率7.78%,超标率1.03%。超标农药为水胺硫磷和毒死蜱。%ADI和%ARfD膳食摄入风险均远小于1。结论 叶菜类蔬菜中各农药残留量风险均在安全范围内,农药残留的膳食暴露风险很小,水胺硫磷、毒死蜱是潜在的风险因子,应加强防患。     

Organophosphorus pesticide residues in milled rice ( Oryza sativa ) on the Chinese market and dietary risk assessment

The present study investigates the occurrence of acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-inhibiting organophosphorus (OP) pesticide residues in milled rice samples obtained form local markets in China during the period 2004–2006 and estimates their cumulative exposure. Concentrations of OP pesticides were determined by gas chromatography with flame photometric detection (GC–FPD). The results showed that 9.3% of the samples contained detectable residues of at least one of the seven target OP pesticides (chlorpyrifos, dichlorvos, omethoate, methamidophos, parathion-methyl, parathion and triazophos) mainly used for agriculture in China, with concentrations ranging 0.011–1.756 mg kg^?1. Rice consumption data was obtained from an individual food consumption survey. Relative potency factors (RPFs) for each pesticide were calculated with methamidophos as the index compound (IC), using 1- or 2-year chronic non-observed adverse effect levels (NOAEL) for AChE inhibition, mostly in rat brain, obtained from international evaluations of pesticides. Exposure to AChE-inhibiting pesticides for the population above 7 years old at P99.9 represented 52–94.5% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) expressed as methamidophos. Estimated exposure for children aged 2–4 and 4–7 years at P99.9 were 119 and 104.3% of the ADI level, respectively. This study suggests that a yearly monitoring program for OP pesticide residues and strict implementation of the national safety standard for milled rice is necessary.     

Survey of pesticide residues in imported frozen vegetables and fruits (1989.4~2008.3)

A survey of pesticide residues in 595 imported frozen products on the Tokyo market from April 1989 to March 2008 was carried out. Forty three kinds of pesticides, including organophosphorus, organochlorine, carbamate, pyrethroid and others, were detected between levels of trace (below 0.01 ppm) and 4.6 ppm from 162 samples. Chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin and omethoate were frequently detected in green vegetables (komatsuna leaf and spinach), cypermethrin and methamidophos were detected in pods and seeds (green soybean and string pea), chlorpropham (CIPC) was detected in potato, and captan and carbaryl were detected in berries (blueberry, raspberry and strawberry). The hydrophilic pesticide methamidophos was detected in flesh of lychee. Residue levels of these pesticides were calculated as between less than 0.5% and 30% of their ADI values according to the daily intake of frozen products. Therefore, these frozen products should be safe when they were eaten in customary amounts.     

广东省部分地区市售龙眼中农药残留现状与膳食暴露评估

目的 调查广东省10个城市市售龙眼中农药残留现状并开展膳食暴露评估,为龙眼生产的合理用药及龙眼中农药残留限量的修订提供参考依据。方法 随机采购来自广东省10个城市的200份龙眼样品,对其中的50种农药残留进行检测。统计分析农药残留数据,采用风险熵值进行龙眼膳食暴露风险评估。结果 200份龙眼样品中,检出农药20种,其中检出率最高的农药为多菌灵,高达33.00%(66/200)。84.00%(168/200)的样品检出农药残留,27.50%(55/200)的样品检出2种及以上多种农药残留。检出的20种农药的慢性膳食暴露量占每日允许摄入量的比例(%ADI)均低于9.00%,在0.00%～8.56%之间;急性膳食暴露量占急性参考剂量的比例(%ARfD)均低于100.00%,在0.02%～70.00%之间。根据残留风险得分,检出残留的20种农药可划分为高风险(5种)、中风险(7种)、低风险(8种)3类。结论 广东省10个城市龙眼中农药残留慢性膳食摄入风险和急性膳食摄入风险均较低,正常食用龙眼不会对居民健康造成不良影响。     

河北省设施黄瓜农药残留风险评估

目的 明确河北省设施黄瓜农药残留状况和居民的膳食摄入风险情况。方法 对采自主产区的90份设施黄瓜样品进行农药残留检测,分别通过%ADI 和%ARfD 进行农药残留慢性膳食摄入风险评估和急性膳食摄入风险评估,借鉴英国兽药残留委员会兽药残留风险排序矩阵进行风险排序。结果 检测的87种农药中有26 种农药检出残留,检测的90份样品的阳性样品比率为100.0%。不同人群慢性膳食摄入风险(ADI%)在0.00%～17.58%之间,急性膳食摄入风险(%ARfD)在0.06%～54.29%之间。根据残留风险得分,高风险农药有3种,即阿维菌素、联苯菊酯和毒死蜱。结论 河北省设施黄瓜农药残留检出率较高,仅有1个样品农药残留超标。农药残留对居民的膳食摄入风险均很低,没有健康风险。建议优先登记盐酸吗啉胍等抗病毒药物在黄瓜上的使用,并制定盐酸吗啉在黄瓜上的MRL值。     

Calculation of the dietary exposure of Chinese consumers to acephate residues using deterministic and probabilistic approaches

This paper compares the exposure for the Chinese populations and sub-groups to acephate, a widely applied organophosphorus pesticide, using deterministic and probabilistic approaches. Acephate residue data were obtained from the national food contamination monitoring program 2001–2006, collected by multi-stage stratified sampling and with a detection rate of 3.3%. Food consumption data were gathered from the national diet and nutrition survey conducted in 2002 over three consecutive days by the 24-h recall method, and included 22,563 families or 65,886 consumers aged 2–100 years. For point estimate, it was evident that exposures were higher than the acute reference dose (ARfD) in many cases. For the probabilistic approach, the P99.9 exposures for the general population and children accounted for 11.88 and 24.15% of the ARfD, respectively, in acute intake calculations and 52.86 and 68.75%, respectively, of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) in chronic intake calculations. The exposure level of rural people was higher than urban dwellers, and vegetables contributed most to acephate intake.     

济南市市售蔬菜中农药残留及慢性膳食暴露风险评估

目的了解济南市市售蔬菜中农药残留情况,评估蔬菜中农药残留的慢性膳食暴露风险。方法对2010—2012年济南市市售蔬菜的农药残留情况进行分析,以2002年山东省居民营养与健康状况调查和中国居民膳食指南中推荐的蔬菜摄入量及JMPR制定的ADI为参数,应用国际每日膳食摄入评估法对济南市居民蔬菜中农药残留的慢性膳食暴露风险进行评估。结果共监测样品675份,有机磷类农药(乐果和乙酰甲胺磷)的检出率为3.93%(13/331),超标率为2.11%(7/331);拟除虫菊酯类农药(甲氰菊酯和氯菊脂)的检出率为9.91%(21/212),超标率为6.60%(14/212);氨基甲酸酯类农药(抗蚜威和异丙威)的检出率为7.58%(10/132),超标率为5.30%(7/132)。经评估各类农药的摄入量均小于ADI。结论济南市市售蔬菜农药残留量在安全限制之内,居民蔬菜中农药残留的慢性膳食暴露风险小,但农药残留超标现象普遍,应规范和加强农药的使用和管理。     

Calculation of the dietary exposure of Chinese consumers to acephate residues using deterministic and probabilistic approaches

This paper compares the exposure for the Chinese populations and sub-groups to acephate, a widely applied organophosphorus pesticide, using deterministic and probabilistic approaches. Acephate residue data were obtained from the national food contamination monitoring program 2001-2006, collected by multi-stage stratified sampling and with a detection rate of 3.3%. Food consumption data were gathered from the national diet and nutrition survey conducted in 2002 over three consecutive days by the 24-h recall method, and included 22,563 families or 65,886 consumers aged 2-100 years. For point estimate, it was evident that exposures were higher than the acute reference dose (ARfD) in many cases. For the probabilistic approach, the P99.9 exposures for the general population and children accounted for 11.88 and 24.15% of the ARfD, respectively, in acute intake calculations and 52.86 and 68.75%, respectively, of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) in chronic intake calculations. The exposure level of rural people was higher than urban dwellers, and vegetables contributed most to acephate intake.     

Pesticide residue assessment in different types of olive oil and preliminary exposure assessment of Greek consumers to the pesticide residues detected

In this study the occurrence and levels of multi-class pesticides in different types of virgin olive oil quality and origination were determined and the contribution of olive oil in the chronic risk of pesticide residues consumption in the Mediterranean diet was estimated. For this purpose, a multiresidue method for the determination of 35 pesticides in olive oil was evaluated and applied to a total number of 100 olive oil samples. Ten percent of the samples produced from fruits of conventional cultivations contained no detectable residues whereas in the rest samples were detected residues of 20 insecticides. The highest detection rates were observed for the residues of fenthion, dimethoate and endosulfan. The highest occurrence and levels of pesticides were observed in extra virgin olive oil whereas results pointed that residues in olive oil from variety of olives with high oil yield may be higher. Furthermore, olive oil from organic cultivations could be contaminated with pesticide residues and/or contain low levels of pesticide residues that are not registered for use in olive cultivations. For there were multiresidues of pesticides present in olive oil, there is no zero risk in consumption of olive oil. However, the exposure of olive oil consumers to each detected residue is far below the acceptable daily intake (ADI).     

The concept of the acceptable daily intake: an historical review

In the first section the sequence of events is outlined which leads to the author's proposal to consider the concept of acceptable daily intake (ADI) for pesticide residues. He developed his theory referring to specific aspects during meetings with experts on the toxicological evaluation of chemical agents which become introduced into foodstuffs intentionally or unintentionally. These meetings were organized periodically by the European Council or Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committees on food additives (JECFA) or pesticide residues (JMPR). The general principles of the ADI evaluation are briefly described as being based on the determination (after extended absorption) of a no-effect dose level in an appropriate animal species; followed by the application, for the extrapolation of the results in animals to humans, of safety factors taking into account the interspecies sensitivity variations and individual sensitivity variations in the groups of essentially heterogeneous human consumers. It is pointed out that the ADI value, which depends on a series of factors, is not a constant, but a guide serving to calculate the admissible limits of diverse chemical agents incorporated in foodstuffs. It must take into account the usual normalities between medium terms of consumption varying a lot with the countries and the various consumer groups. It is clearly noted that, because of the fluctuations in the type and the quantities of absorbed diets, the ADI is in reality an integrated value with regard to the time, a notion that is often forgotten. Other ideas are developed, in particular on the adoption of a temporary ADI and on the concept of a non-specified ADI.     

北京市蔬菜中农药残留现状及慢性膳食暴露评估

目的了解北京市蔬菜中农药残留污染现状及对北京市居民的膳食风险水平。方法采集2013年北京市主要蔬菜生产基地和大型批发市场的蔬菜样品,采用NY/T 761-2008和GB/T 20769-2008等方法检测样品中的33种农药残留,分析北京市蔬菜中农药残留现状,并结合大城市居民的蔬菜消费情况和食品安全指数法对北京市居民从蔬菜中摄入农药风险进行慢性膳食暴露评估。结果 2013年北京市抽检的蔬菜中农药残留检测合格率达99.2%(502/506),农药超标的蔬菜为白菜类和绿叶菜类,拟除虫菊酯类农药检出频次较高,其构成比占40.8%,检出超标的农药为吡虫啉、毒死蜱、哒螨灵和百菌清;对所有检出农药进行慢性膳食暴露评估结果表明,百菌清的日摄入量相对较高,然而包括百菌清在内所有检出农药的食品安全指数值均小于1。结论北京市蔬菜中农药残留量的安全风险均在可接受范围内,百菌清是潜在的风险因子,应重点防患蔬菜中百菌清的残留风险。     

Safety assessment of antioxidants and color fixatives for the Korean population using dietary intake monitoring

Food additives such as antioxidants and color fixatives are substances used in food intentionally for technical effect, such as decolorizing or intensifying the color of food. Based on the necessity of re-evaluating food additives for safety and to improve consumer perception, we conducted safety assessments for food additives according to the Risk Assessment Guidelines of the Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. These safety assessments evaluated new risk information based on toxicology data and estimates of dietary intake exposures to food additives in comparison with the acceptable daily intake (ADI). Estimated daily intakes (EDI) of food additives were calculated using food consumption data for the Korean population derived from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and monitoring data based on the analysis of food additives in food products. Unlike contaminants, antioxidants and color fixatives are purposely added as food additives, and they are largely consumed in processed foods. Therefore, EDI was compared with ADI to investigate the likelihood of potentially hazardous effects in humans. The risk likelihoods of food additives, evaluated by comparing the EDI with the ADI, were less than 2% in the total population. Thus, exposure levels to antioxidants and color fixatives do not exceed the ADI. Based on the safety assessments conducted in this study, we estimate exposure to food additives to be within safe limits for all population groups.