猪肉引发厨房沙门氏菌交叉污染定量风险评估

目的：本研究以猪肉为厨房沙门氏菌污染来源,计算其交叉污染即食食物导致沙门氏菌中毒的风险,探明 厨房内引发交叉污染的关键影响因子,并提出相应的风险管理措施。方法：采用文献数据分析我国生鲜猪肉中沙门 氏菌污染概率和水平,结合居民消费习惯调查数据,建立沙门氏菌的生长模型,采用@Risk软件,结合蒙特卡洛模 拟分析,定量评估我国消费者因猪肉导致厨房即食食物交叉污染引发的沙门氏菌中毒风险。评估从危害识别、暴露 评估、危害特征描述和风险分析4 个部分进行。结果：已收集到的数据统计显示,市场上生鲜猪肉沙门氏菌初始污 染率为15.5%,从市场进入厨房再到冰箱冷藏放置,最后到接触砧板进行制作切割时,生鲜猪肉中沙门氏菌污染平 均值为－1.95（lg（CFU/g））,90%置信区间为－5.32～0.67（lg（CFU/g））。生鲜猪肉通过接触砧板、手和刀 具等对即食食品发生交叉污染。通过生长模型、交叉污染模型等数学模型进行计算,得出消费者每人每天因食用即 食食物摄入的沙门氏菌总量为－4.77（lg（CFU/g））,90%置信区间为－8.73～－1.24（lg（CFU/g））。评估结 果表明,我国因生鲜猪肉导致沙门氏菌污染即食食物而引发的厨房沙门氏菌中毒概率为4.15×10－6,每年因此而引 发的沙门氏菌病例数约为95 299 例。敏感性分析结果显示：进入厨房的生鲜猪肉沙门氏菌初始污染水平对厨房中的 交叉污染影响最大,而厨房中生熟混用也是导致交叉污染的主要原因;控制食物存放冰箱的温度和时间可以降低交 叉污染风险。结论：我国厨房因猪肉交叉污染导致的沙门氏菌中毒事件发生概率,最终取决于猪肉在进入厨房时的 整体污染水平、消费者厨房生熟分隔的习惯以及冰箱使用习惯等,而这些又与季节和居民生活水平以及社会经济发 展水平息息相关。     

上海市市售凉拌菜中金黄色葡萄球菌的定量风险评估

目的定量评估市售凉拌菜中金黄色葡萄球菌污染的健康风险,并根据风险评估结果寻找有效的预防措施。方法利用上海市市售凉拌菜中金黄色葡萄球菌检测结果和居民凉拌菜消费习惯及消费量数据,遵循国际食品法典委员会(CAC)提出的危害识别、危害特征描述、暴露评估和风险特征描述四个经典评估步骤,采用Monte Carlo概率评估方法,评估上海市居民由于食用凉拌菜引起的金黄色葡萄球菌肠毒素中毒的风险,并评价潜在的干预措施效果。结果上海市市售凉拌菜中3.39%(21/620)的样品检出金黄色葡萄球菌,平均菌落数为229 CFU/g;居民食用凉拌菜,平均消费频次56.27次/年;每次食用凉拌菜发生金黄色葡萄球菌中毒的概率为0.04%,每年可能的患病例数为51.81万例。结论上海市居民由于食用凉拌菜而导致金黄色葡萄球菌肠毒素中毒存在一定风险,降低零售时凉拌菜中金黄色葡萄球菌的含量、购买后尽快食用和冷藏储存是有效减少凉拌菜中金黄色葡萄球菌肠毒素中毒事件发生的重要干预措施。     

生菜中蜡样芽孢杆菌污染水平风险分析

研究生菜中蜡样芽孢杆菌的污染状况,并对蜡样芽孢杆菌可能引发的公共卫生风险进行初步评估,为选择合适的风险管理措施提供依据。筛查宝坻基地水培生菜、蓟州基地水培生菜、市售露地大棚生菜中蜡样芽孢杆菌的初始污染量及可能污染来源,结合居民对生菜食用习惯的膳食回顾性调查,采用@Risk 6软件评估最终食用时生菜中蜡样芽孢杆菌的含量。结果表明:蓟州基地水培生菜、宝坻基地水培生菜、市售露地大棚生菜的初始污染量平均水平分别为6.9×10~2、1.5×10~2、1.4×10~2 CFU/g,结合200份居民对生菜食用习惯的调研数据,应用@Risk 6软件经1 000次迭代模拟评估食用时蜡样芽孢杆菌含量超过中毒诊断限值10~5 CFU/g的概率分别为10.7%、12.3%、7.1%,且贮藏温度最终污染量/概率分布的相关性最大。蓟州基地水培生菜的可能污染来源为基质,宝坻基地水培生菜的可能污染来源主要为营养液,其次为基质。基地水培生菜的初始污染量较市售露地大棚生菜明显偏高,这与水培生菜的水床流通式栽培模式相关,建议基地水培生菜采取有效的风险管理措施,严格控制初始污染量及基质和营养液的环境交叉污染。依据现有生菜中蜡样芽孢杆菌初始污染量及居民食用习惯,建议居民购买生菜后,严格控制贮藏温度,可有效保证食用安全。     

冷却猪肉中单增李斯特菌的定量暴露评估

目的：建立冷却猪肉中单增李斯特菌的暴露评估模型。方法：通过前期对某市冷却猪肉中单增李斯特菌污染情况的调查获取初始污染水平数据,结合建立的生长模型,利用@Risk 5.5软件,定量模拟从销售到家庭贮藏阶段冷却猪肉中单增李斯特菌的暴露情况。结果：大约有1.2%的冷却猪肉中单增李斯特菌超过了风险阈值4（lg（CFU/g））,但是由于其最大值达到了6.29（lg（CFU/g））,不能忽视其潜在的风险。敏感性分析结果显示：单增李斯特菌的初始污染水平与最终暴露量的相关性最高,相关系数为0.90,其次是家庭贮藏时间和家庭贮藏温度,相关系数分别为0.34和0.21。结论：本研究可为相关部门及消费者采取相应的风险管理措施提供参考。     

自制猪肉灌肠中金黄色葡萄球菌的半定量风险评估

金黄色葡萄球菌（Staphylococcus aureus）是一种病原菌,能够引发多种疾病。通过对某市开展自制猪肉灌肠中的金黄色葡萄球菌半定量风险评估,加强人们的食品安全意识,为构建完整的金黄色葡萄球菌风险评估体系提供理论参考。本文参照微生物风险评估程序,对金黄色葡萄球菌开展了危害识别、危害特征描述、暴露评估、风险特征描述。基于2015-2018年监测肉类及肉制品的161组数据,构建自制猪肉灌肠中金黄色葡萄球菌的风险矩阵,运用@RISK软件,计算风险可能性（P）和风险损失度（S）。结果表明,该市易感人群通过食用灌肠食品感染金黄色葡萄球菌的风险等级（R）为五级风险等级中较小的二级,说明当地居民通过摄入灌肠食品的方式感染金黄色葡萄球菌的风险较小。     

温度和接种量对搅打奶油中金黄色葡萄球菌生长及产肠毒素的影响

目的：研究金黄色葡萄球菌在搅打奶油中的生长以及产毒特性。方法：将不同浓度的初始接种量的产A型肠毒素金黄色葡萄球菌菌液接种到奶油中并搅打成型,低接种量控制在2～3（lg（CFU/g））,高接种量控制在4（lg（CFU/g））以上。定时测量不同贮存温度条件下奶油中的金黄色葡萄球菌的菌落总数以及产毒状况。结果：36 ℃条件下生长速率最快,其他温度条件下依次降低;低初接种量水平下,只有36 ℃条件下于27 h检测到产生毒素,其他温度条件下未检测到毒素产生;高初接种量水平条件下,在36 ℃于12 h、25 ℃于24 h、15 ℃于66 h检测到产生毒素,5 ℃条件下金黄色葡萄球菌既不生长,又不产毒。结论：随着温度的升高,金黄色葡萄球菌的生长速率随之升高,产肠毒素的时间也随之缩短,高初始接种量水平肠毒素产生的时间短于低初始接种量水平,肠毒素的产生时间为一般在对数期的中后期,此时金黄色葡萄球菌菌落总数≥6（lg（CFU/g））。     

反复冻融对速冻水饺菌相变化的影响

本文同时采用PCR-DGGE(聚合酶链式反应-变性梯度凝胶电泳)方法和传统平板培养法两种方法研究了反复冻融条件下造成的温度波动对速冻水饺中微生物数量及其种类多样性的影响。并向水饺中人为添加金黄色葡萄球菌,分析反复冻融条件下金黄色葡萄球菌数量的动态变化及其对水饺中菌相的影响。研究结果表明随着反复冻融次数的增加,水饺中的微生物数量均呈显著增加趋势(P0.05),人工接种金黄色葡萄球菌处理组水饺中金黄色葡萄球菌数量从速冻后的3.49 lg CFU/g增加至5.07 lg CFU/g,已经达到了可导致葡萄球菌属中毒的水平(105CFU/g)。PCR-DGGE结果表明,乳酸菌、假单胞菌和热杀索丝菌为反复冻融过程水饺中的优势菌株,葡萄球菌属在后期数量较多成为反复冻融后期的优势菌株,与传统平凡培养方法结果基本一致。     

生乳中金黄色葡萄球菌污染半定量风险评估研究

目的探索上海市生乳中金黄色葡萄球菌污染的风险。方法按微生物风险评估的程序,应用半定量风险评估软件(risk ranger)结合流行病学调查和微生物检测等。结果上海市金黄色葡萄球菌肠毒素性食物中毒列报告的细菌性食物中毒暴发事件第3位;金黄色葡萄球菌肠毒素性食物中毒的严重性中等、全人群易感;4—6月上海市生乳中金黄色葡萄球菌污染率为72.0%,乳及乳制品日均消费量达86.60 g/人;假设生乳在加工前金黄色葡萄球菌超过105 CFU/g的概率为1/1 000,则每人每天因食用污染金黄色葡萄球菌污染乳及乳制品引起食物中毒的概率为2.5×10-7,每年因金黄色葡萄球菌污染乳及乳制品食物中毒病例数862人,风险等级49。结论上海市生乳中金黄色葡萄球菌污染的风险程度属于中等,需加强监管。     

上海市猪肉中金黄色葡萄球菌定量风险评估

目的了解上海居民因食用污染金黄色葡萄球菌的鲜猪肉而导致食物中毒的风险,为今后开展完善猪肉产品中金黄色葡萄球菌风险评估提供参考,为选择合适的风险管理措施提供依据。方法采用倍数生长模型,估计6-10月在室温条件下储藏不超过1天时间的最终食用时猪肉内的金黄色葡萄球菌含量。结果6-10月食用时猪肉中金黄色葡萄球菌含量超过105CFU/g的概率分别为3.3%、33.6%、21.4%、7.6%和0.3%。6、9、10月中初始污染水平与发生食物中毒风险的相关性最大,而在7、8月储藏时间与食物中毒的风险相关性最大。结论7月通过食用猪肉发生葡萄球菌食物中毒的风险最大,接下来依次是8、9、6和10月。这一趋势与各月温度的分布基本一致,证明了温度越高越容易发生葡萄球菌食物中毒,该模型的预测结果比较合理。     

气调包装酱卤鸭翅贮藏过程中菌群结构分析

运用传统细菌平板培养和聚合酶链式反应-变性梯度凝胶电脉方法研究气调包装酱卤鸭翅15 ℃贮藏过程中微生物菌群结构变化。细菌总数计数结果表明,产品生产的卫生条件较好,细菌初始污染菌数较低（小于2（lg（CFU/g）））,至贮藏第9天左右产品细菌总数超过4（lg（CFU/g））。变性梯度凝胶电脉指纹图谱结果表明,贮藏初期产品的初始污染菌主要为不动杆菌属,至贮藏末期,产品中的主要菌群有嗜冷杆菌、莫拉氏菌、链球菌等,其中嗜冷杆菌属成为产品贮藏末期的优势菌。     

Efficacy of a commercial produce wash on bacterial contamination of lettuce in a food service setting

Many microorganisms (including a number of important foodborne pathogens) can be present on raw fruits and vegetables. Since these products are frequently eaten raw, any pathogens present represent a potential risk to the consumer. The objective of this study was to compare the efficacy of a commercial produce wash with that of water for reducing the total bacterial population on lettuce when used by food service employees in university dining halls. Because this study was carried out in actual food service facilities during their daily operation, we used indigenous produce microflora instead of actual pathogens. Over the course of the study, more than 40 heads of lettuce were divided into thirds, and each section was analyzed for total plate count either before washing, after washing in water, or after washing in Victory produce wash. When initial contamination levels were > or = 100 CFU/g (n = 36 samples), reductions obtained with Victory produce wash (1.8 log CFU/g) were significantly larger (P = 0.0006) than those obtained with water (0.8 log CFU/g). Our results indicate that Victory produce wash is effective in reducing indigenous flora on lettuce during food service preparation. Our results also show that care must be taken in the analysis of microbial reduction data: only a slight reduction in total plate count (ca. 0.1 log CFU/g) and no significant difference in reductions (P = 0.84) were observed when all samples (irrespective of initial contamination level) were compared.     

Assessing the cross contamination and transfer rates of Salmonella enterica from chicken to lettuce under different food-handling scenarios

Cross contamination of foodborne pathogens from raw meats to ready-to-eat foods has caused a number of foodborne outbreaks. The cross contamination and transfer rates of Salmonella enterica from chicken to lettuce under various food-handling scenarios were determined. The following scenarios were tested: in scenario 1, cutting board and knife used to cut chicken (10⁶ CFU/g) were also used for cutting lettuce, without washing; in scenario 2, cutting board and knife were washed with water separately after cutting chicken, and subsequently used for cutting lettuce; and in scenario 3, cutting board and knife were thoroughly washed with soap and hot water after cutting chicken, and before cutting lettuce. In each scenario, cutting board, knife, chicken and lettuce were sampled for population of S. enterica. For scenario 1, both before and after cutting lettuce, the cutting board and knife each had about 2 logs CFU/cm² of S. enterica, respectively. The cut lettuce had about 3 logs CFU/g of S. enterica. In scenario 2, fewer organisms (0.5–2.4 logs CFU/g or cm²) were transferred. The transfer rates in both scenarios ranged from 0.02 to 75%. However, in scenario 3, <1 log CFU/g or cm² organisms were detected on lettuce, cutting board or knife, after washing and cutting lettuce. This shows that the FDA recommended practice for cleaning cutting boards is effective in removing S. enterica and preventing cross contamination.     

肉牛屠宰过程中胴体表面及接触环境污染情况分析

为研究肉牛屠宰场屠宰过程中牛胴体表面污染及接触环境污染变化情况,选取某牛屠宰场采集样品共计322 份,分别在剥皮扯皮、去内脏、修整称质量、冲洗及排酸环节对牛胴体后腿、背部、胸部、前腿及颈部以及屠宰前后的工人手部及刀具进行采样,测定菌落总数、乳酸菌、大肠菌群、金黄色葡萄球菌及假单胞菌的污染情况。结果表明：胴体表面污染情况总体呈现先上升后下降的趋势,修整称质量环节污染最为严重,菌落总数可达到2.82（lg（CFU/cm2））;胸部为屠宰过程中污染最严重的部位,平均菌落总数可达到2.10（lg（CFU/cm2））;屠宰空气在冲洗时污染最为严重,空气沉降菌落总数高达271.33 CFU/皿;屠宰工人的手部及刀具也是胴体污染的主要来源。     

The impact of extreme weather events on Salmonella internalization in lettuce and green onion

Salmonella internalization is an important issue in raw vegetable consumption because washing usually cannot remove or inactivate the internalized pathogens effectively. In this study, the impact of extreme weather events, drought and heavy rains, caused by climate change on the internalization of Salmonella Typhimurium was investigated. Two leafy green fresh produce, iceberg lettuce and green onion were chosen. Rhizosphere soil inoculation was conducted to mimic the contamination routes via soil and then root uptake. Most internalized S. Typhimurium were found in lettuce leaves and in the root portions of green onion under all three irrigation conditions (optimal, drought, storm). In general, high concentration of soil inoculation facilitated the internalization level in both lettuce and green onion. Under extreme weather conditions, the internalization of S. Typhimurium in lettuce occurred when the soil was contaminated with a high level of bacteria (8–9 log colony forming unit (CFU)/g soil) and under these conditions, the internalization level was higher than the lettuce grown at the optimal water condition, except with 8 log CFU/g contamination (storm). Under drought, the results showed high variation, but the level of internalization of S. Typhimurium in lettuce increased by 16 times (1.21 log CFU/g) and 27 times (1.43 log CFU/g) compared to the optimally irrigated group when the soil was contaminated with 8 log and 9 log CFU/g soil, respectively. Ten-fold increased internalization was observed in the over-irrigated lettuce leaves when the soil was contaminated with 9 log CFU/g soil. The green onion samples showed ~ 4 log CFU/g green onion of S. Typhimurium internalization when exposed to high level of contamination (> 7 log CFU/g soil), which is a much higher internalization rate than the lettuce (average 2–3 log CFU/g). However, from the green onion experiments, no apparent patterns of water stress that affect on the levels on the Salmonella internalization were observed.     

Efficiency of sodium hypochlorite, fumaric acid, and mild heat in killing native microflora and Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella typhimurium DT104, and Staphylococcus aureus attached to fresh-cut lettuce

The effect of the disinfectant sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), with or without mild heat (50 degrees C) and fumaric acid, on native bacteria and the foodborne pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 attached to iceberg lettuce leaves was examined. The retail lettuce examined consistently harbored 6 to 7 log CFU/g of native bacteria throughout the study period. Inner leaves supported 1 to 2 log CFU/g fewer bacteria than outer leaves. About 70% of the native bacterial flora was removed by washing five times with 0.85% NaCl. S. aureus, E. coli, and Salmonella allowed to attach to lettuce leaves for 5 min were more easily removed by washing than when allowed to attach for 1 h or 2 days, with more S. aureus being removed than E. coli or Salmonella Typhimurium. An increase of time for attachment of pathogens from 5 min to 2 days leads to decreased efficiency of the washing and sanitizing treatment. Treatment with fumaric acid (50 mM for 10 min at room temperature) was the most effective, although it caused browning of the lettuce, with up to a 2-log reduction observed. The combination of 200 ppm of sodium hypochlorite and mild heat treatment at 50 degrees C for 1 min reduced the pathogen populations by 94 to 98% (1.2- to 1.7-log reduction) without increasing browning.     

Assessment of control measures to achieve a food safety objective of less than 100 CFU of Listeria monocytogenes per gram at the point of consumption for fresh precut iceberg lettuce

The important new concept of the food safety objective (FSO) offers a strategy to translate public health risk into a definable goal such as a specified maximum frequency or concentration of a hazardous agent in a food at the time of consumption that is deemed to provide an appropriate level of health protection. For the foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes, there is a proposed FSO of < 100 CFU/g in ready-to-eat (RTE) products at the time of consumption. Fresh precut iceberg lettuce is one of these RTE products. In this study, we worked with a commercial manufacturer to evaluate the effectiveness of two antimicrobial washing agents (sodium hypochlorite and a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and peroxyacetic acid) against L. monocytogenes under simulated fresh precut washing conditions and evaluated the growth potential of this pathogen on lettuce packaged in a gas-permeable film and stored at 4 or 8 degrees C for 14 days. We used the results of this experiment to demonstrate how the commercial manufacturer could meet the FSO for L. monocytogenes in fresh precut lettuce through the application of performance, process, and microbiological criteria.     

Efficacy of slightly acidic electrolyzed water in killing or reducing Escherichia coli O157:H7 on iceberg lettuce and tomatoes under simulated food service operation conditions

Abstract: The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of slightly acidic electrolyzed (SAEO) water in killing or removing Escherichia coli O157:H7 on iceberg lettuce and tomatoes by washing and chilling treatment simulating protocols used in food service kitchens. Whole lettuce leaves and tomatoes were spot‐inoculated with 100 μL of a mixture of 5 strains of E. coli O157:H7. Washing lettuce with SAEO water for 15 s reduced the pathogen by 1.4 to 1.6 log CFU/leaf, but the treatments did not completely inactivate the pathogen in the wash solution. Increasing the washing time to 30 s increased the reductions to 1.7 to 2.3 log CFU/leaf. Sequential washing in SAEO water for 15 s and then chilling in SAEO water for 15 min also increased the reductions to 2.0 to 2.4 log CFU/leaf, and no cell survived in chilling solution after treatment. Washing tomatoes with SAEO water for 8 s reduced E. coli O157:H7 by 5.4 to 6.3 log CFU/tomato. The reductions were increased to 6.6 to 7.6 log CFU/tomato by increasing the washing time to 15 s. Results suggested that application of SAEO water to wash and chill lettuce and tomatoes in food service kitchens could minimize cross‐contamination and reduce the risk of E. coli O157:H7 present on the produce. Practical Application: SAEO water is equally or slightly better than acidic electrolyzed (AEO) water for inactivation of bacteria on lettuce and tomato surfaces. In addition, SAEO water may have the advantages over AEO water on its stability, no chlorine smell, and low corrosiveness. Therefore, SAEO water may have potential for produce wash to enhance food safety.     

Modeling the level of contamination of Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat kimbab in Korea

The risk of Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat kimbab (rice rolled in laver) sold in Korea was evaluated by a mathematical modeling approach. Four nodes were constructed from preparation at retail to consumption. A predictive microbial growth model and survey data were combined with probabilistic modeling to simulate the level of S. aureus in a single kimbab at the time of consumption. We estimated the mean level of S. aureus to be 2.92 log CFU/g for a typical kimbab (150 to 200 g each) at the time of consumption. Our model also showed that 29.73% of the kimbabs had > or = 100,000 S. aureus CFU/g, which poses some risk of illness, since some level of enterotoxin would be expected from toxigenic strains. However, because of the lack of dose-response models for staphylococcal enterotoxin, the final level of S. aureus in the kimbabs could not be used to estimate how many people would become ill from eating them. Correlation sensitivity results showed that consumer eating patterns and initial contamination levels at retail stores were the most significant risk factors for illness and that temperature control under 10 degrees C was a critical control point in kimbab retail establishments to prevent the growth of S. aureus.